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San  Francisco,  California 
2006 


AMATEUR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Growing  of  Fruit 
for  Home  Use  and  the  Market. 


Written  with  Special  Reference  to  Colder  Climates. 


BY 

SAMUEL  B.   GREEN, 
Professor  of  Horticulture  in  the  University  of  Minnesota. 


MINNEAPOLIS : 

FARM,  STOCK  AND  HOME  PUBLISHING  Co., 
1894. 


COPYRIGHT,  1893. 
BY  SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 

— x 


(5 


INTRODUCTION. 


j-  X  my  experience  as  teacher  of  Horticulture  in  the  School  of 
~  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Minnesota  I  have  not  been 
able  to  find  a  book  on  fruit  growing  at  all  adapted  to  the 
wants  of  the  students  coming  under  my  instruction.  In  fact,  I 
soon  found  that  the  material  along  this  line  consisted  princi- 
pally of  papers  scattered  through  reports  of  the  various  hor- 
ticultural societies  and  in  the  agricultural  press,  and  that  these 
were  not  generally  available,  nor,  indeed,  sufficiently  condensed 
for  my  purpose.  The  peculiar  conditions  that  obtain  in  this 
section  of  the  country,  and  which  render  the  works  of  Eastern 
authorities  of  little  practical  value  here,  made  it  desirable  for 
me  to  have  some  practical  book  on  fruit  growing  that  the 
students  could  study  and  refer  to  at  their  convenience. 

Another  reason  for  presenting  this  book  is  that  by  so  doing 
I  might  answer  the  many  questions  relating  to  the  subject 
treated,  which  have  been  often  referred  to  me,  and  which  have 
required  much  time  and  attention  in  correspondence. 

The  book  is  written  for  the  beginner  and  is  not  offered 
as  a  complete  manual  of  Horticulture,  although  it  is  believed 
to  cover  all  the  important  points  in  practical  fruit  growing. 
But  lew  varieties  are  recommended,  and  only  the  kinds  tuat 
have  been  tried  for  some  considerable  period  and  can  be  ob- 
tained from  the  general  nurserymen.  Untried  and  little  known 
kinds  have  been  purposely  avoided,  however  well  they  may 
have  appeared.  It  is  my  earnest  wish  that  new  varieties  be 
let  alone  by  the  amateur  in  horticulture,  and  that,  instead  of 
beginning  with  novelties  in  fruits,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  he 
will  postpone  their  trial  until  he  has  first  tried  those  kinds 
that  are  known  to  be  desirable. 


380436 


iV  INTRODUCTION. 

Varieties  of  many  fruits,  especially  of  small  fruits,  seldom 
last  in  full  vigor  for  more  than  a  score  of  years,  and  often 
after  a  much  less  time  they  are  superceded  by  new  and  bet- 
ter kinds.  There  are  many  novelties  in  fruits  introduced  each 
year,  but  in  my  experience  not  one  new  variety  in  ten  that  is 
offered  for  sale  is  worthy  of  trial.  It  is  my  intention  to  issue 
a  supplementary  fruit  list  as  often  as  may  seem  desirable,  and 
lists  of  fruits  recommended  in  this  work  may  be  supplemented 
by  reference  to  the  fruit  lists  of  the  different  horticultural  soci- 
eties. 

The  Appendix  at  the  end  of  the  volume  by  Professor  J.  L. 
Budd,  of  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College,  adds  much  to  the  value 
of  the  list  of  fruits,  and  is  here  included  for  the  benefit  of 
planters  living  in  the  latitude  of  Northern  Iowa  and  Illinois 
and  Southern  Minnesota,  and  to  him  my  thanks  are  due  for 
this  assistance. 

SAMUEL  B,  GKEKX. 
St.  Anthony  Park,  December  15,  1W3. 


CHAPTER    i. 


STRAWBERRIES. 


Will  HE  strawberry  is  the  most  important  of  the  small  fruits.  It  is 
<«*>  found  growing  from  the  far  north  to  the  hot  south,  and  across 
the  Continent.  There  is  not  a  state  in  this  country  but  has  its  wild 
strawberries.  There  are  large  sections  of  Minnesota  where  the 
strawberry  produces  as  heavily  as  it  does  anywhere  when  given 
good  cultivation,  and  there  is  not  a  county  in  the  state  where  it 
cannot  be  made  to  yield  abundantly.  It  is  easily  grown,  stands 
transportation  moderately  well,  and  is  almost  universally  admired. 

Species.— There  are  three  species  of  the  strawberry  common- 
ly met  with  in  cultivation: — 

(1)  Fragaria  Virginiana,  which  forms  entirely  or  enters  largely 
into  the  parentage  of  the  varieties  that  have  become  widely  known 
and  esteemed  on  account  of  their  hardiness  and  reliability. 

(2)  Fragaria  t/randiflora,  the  South  American  strawberry,  is 
grown  much  more  extensively  in  eastern  Europe  than  in  this  coun- 
try.   This  variety  readily  hybridizes  with  the  F.  Virginiana,  but  in 
a  pure  state  is  not  sufficiently  hardy  to  withstand  successfully  our 
hot  summers  and  cold  winters.    It  has  very  handsome,  large  fruit, 
but  it  has  not  the  sprightly  quality  of  our  native  berry. 

(3)  Fragaria  vesca,  called  the  Alpine  or  wood  strawberry,  is  a 
native  of  Europe  and  of  the  northern  parts  of  this  country  and 
Canada.    From  this  have  come  the  ever-bearing  varieties  whose 
praises  are  so  often  talked  of.    It  will  not  hybridize  with  either  of 
the  two  kinds  previously  mentioned.    This  species  is  not  sufficient- 
ly productive  to  warrant  its  being  largely  cultivated.    The  ever- 
bearing or  perpetual  varieties  are  not  desirable.    They  produce  a 
few  berries  all  through  the  season,  but  do  not  produce  enough  at 
any  one  time  to  make  their  cultivation  an  object  of  importance. 
Practically,  then,  this  species  is  of  little  account. 

Propagation.— The  strawberry  is  increased  by  seed,  runners 
and  plant  divisions.    The  plants  do  not  "come  true"  from  seed,  but 
seedlings  vary  very  much  in  their  value  for  cultivation.    Probably 
5 


n  STKAWBEKKIES. 

not  one  plant  in  five  thousand  seedlings  that  may  be  raised  will  be 
as  good  as  any  of  the  best  half  dozei  varieties  now  in  cultivation, 
but  there  will  be  a  good  many  plants  out  of  such  a  number  that 
will  be  fairly  productive  of  good  fruit.  It  is  this  variability  that 
gives  us  an  opportunity  of  improving  on  the  kinds  now  grown.  To 
raise  strawberries  from  seed  the  ripened  berries  should  be  crushed 
in  a  small  amount  of  dry  sand  or  loam  as  soon  as  they  are  "dead 
ripe."  The  seed  and  sand  should  then  be  sown  at  once  in  a  some- 
what shaded  bed  of  rich  soil.  It  will  come  up  in  a  few  weeks  if 
well  cared  for.  The  plants  should  be  transplanted  four  inches 
apart  in  another  bed  as  soon  as  large  enough  to  handle.  By  winter, 
if  carefully  attended  to,  they  will  be  of  good  size  and  may  be  moved 
to  the  fruiting  bed  in  the  spring,  where  they  will  fruit  the  follow- 
ing year,  that  is  in  two  years  from  tne  time  the  seed  was  sown.  It 
is  a  very  simple  process  and  may  be  carried  on  by  any  careful  per- 
son. The  raising  of  seedlings  is  not  often  profitable,  but  is  a  very 
fascinating  line  of  experimental  work  on  account  of  the  possibility 
that  one  may  develop  a  variety  of  more  than  ordinary  value. 

For  practical  purposes  strawberries  are  increased  only  by  run- 
ners, which  most  desirable  kinds  produce  in  great  abundance  when 
growing  in  rich  soil.  These  runners  are  attached  to  the  old  plant 
only  part  of  one  season,  the  connection  dying  tfee  first  winter  if  not 
before.  It  is  common  to  separate  the  runners  into  old  plants  and 
young  plants.  By  old  plants  is  meant  the  plants  that  have  once 
borne  fruit.  They  can  be  distinguished  by  their  black  roots,  and 
should  never  be  used  except  in  emergency  as  they  often  fail  to 
grow.  Plants  should  never  be  taken  from  beds  that  have  fruited. 
The  young  runners  are  what  should  be  set  out.  They  have  never 
fruited,  have  white  roots,  and  were  formed  the  season  just  preced- 
ing the  spring  they  are  set.  Strawberries  should  never  be  grown 
from  divisions,  unless  it  is  necessary  to  save  the  stock  of  a  valuable 
kind. 

Location  and  Soil.— The  crop  is  generally  most  satisfactory 
when  grown  on  a  northern  slope,  as  it  is  then  not  exposed  to  the 
drying  southerly  winds,  which  in  exposed  locations  occasionally  so 
dry  out  the  land  that  the  crop  is  seriously  lessened;  also  as  the 
plants  start  latest  on  north  slopes  the  blossoms  are  not  liable  to  be 
injured  by  the  late  spring  frosts  which  sometimes  cause  serious  in- 
jury to  plants  that  start  early.  Some  growers,  however,  are  very 
successful  in  growing  them  on  southerly  slopes  or  on  level  land. 
In  a  general  way  any  land  or  location  that  is  good  enough  for  a 
crop  of  corn  will  do  admirably  for-  strawberries,  but  strawberries 
should  never  be  planted  on  sod-land  on  account  of  the  liability  of 
its  being  infested  with  cut-worms,  or  with  the  white  grub,  which 
feeds  on  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

Manure  and  Preparation  of  the  Land.— The  strawberry 
is  a  gross  feeder  and  needs  plenty  of  plant  food  in  the  soil.  The 
best  fertilizer  is  barn-yard  manure  that  is  partially  rotted,  but  it 
should  not  be  plowed  in  very  deep.  It  is  generally  best  to  plow  the 


STRAWBERRIES.  7 

land  deep  in  autumn,  apply  the  manure  in  winter  or  in  spring,  and 
then  plow  the  manure  under  very  shallow  as  soon  as  may  be  there- 
after. The  land  should  then  be  thoroughly  dragged  and  smoothed, 
when  it  is  ready  for  the  plants.  When  so  prepared  the  land  has  a 
loose  surface  bed  in  which  to  place  the  plants,  while  underneath  it 
the  soil  is  so  firm  as  to  retain  the  moisture  and  yet  it  is  open 
enough  so  that  the  young  roots  can  push  into  it. 

Time  of  Planting.— Practically  there  is  only  one  tfme  to 
plant,  and  that  is  in  the  spring.  It  is  occasionally  recommended  to 
plant  in  August.  It  may  be  all  right  to  do  so  in  case  there  is  no 
strawberry  bed  in  the  home  garden,  and  there  is  considerable  mois- 
ture in  the  ground  so  the  plants  will  live  without  too  much  care, 
but  in  ordinary  seasons  here  the  results  from  setting  the  plants  at 
this  time  are  very  uncertain  and  do'  not  warrant  the  planting  of 
them  on  a  large  scale.  If  it  is  decided  to  set  a  bed  for  the  home 
garden  in  August,  the  plants  may  be  well-rooted  layers  from  some 
bed  near  by,  or  if  obtained  from  a  distance  they  should  have  been 
potted  and  be  well  rotted  in  the  pots.  The  potted  plants  cost  more 
but  are  much  surer  to  grow  than  layers.  The  growers  of  straw- 
berries for  profit  in  this  state  always  plant  in  the  spring.  The 
earlier  the  plants  can  be  set  the  longer  the  season  for  them  to  grow, 
and  the  cool,  moist  weather  of  early  spring  seems  to  favor  the  for- 
mation of  roots,  but  they  may  be  set  as  late  as  the  first  of  June 
with  fair  prospect  of  success.  However,  if  the  land  is  very  dry  at 
planting  time  it  is  best  not  to  plant  until  after  a  rain,  even  if  wait- 
ing for  it  may  delay  the  planting  considerably.  In  this  climate  it 
is  poor  practice  to  set  out  strawberry  plants  for  profit  in  dry  soil 
and  try  to  keep  them  growing  by  watering,  as  so  much  water  and 
attention  is  required  that  the  operation  will  be  found  a  losing  one. 

If  plants  are  received  when  the  land  is  very  dry  it  is  the  cus- 
tom of  the  best  growers  to  open  the  bundles,  shake  out  the  plants, 
and  dip  the  roots  into  a  clay-loam  mud  and  "heel  them  in"  close  to- 
gether, putting  a  little  soil  between  the  plants.  When  thus  treated 
they  may  be  easily  watered,  and  will  commence  to  grow  and  be 
ready  to  set  out  in  the  field  or  garden  as  soon  as  a  favorable  time 
offers.  If  the  space  where  the  plants  are  heeled  in  is  surrounded 
by  a  board  fence,  or  other  windbreak,  a  few  feet  high,  it  will  aid 
much  in  preventing  the  drying  action  of  the  wind. 

Plants  that  have  been  some  time  in  transit  are  very  apt  to  look 
white  and  weak  when  received,  and  are  almost  sure  to  die  if  at 
once  set  in  the  full  sunshine.  They  should  be  heeled  in  and  par- 
tially shaded  until  they  assume  their  normal  color. 

Methods  of  Planting.— There  are  many  methods  of  plant- 
ing but  I  will  mention  only  two  ways,  and  they  may  be  modified  as 
the  good  judgment  of  the  planter  may  suggest. 

HILL  SYSTEM.— This  is  especially  adapted  to  the  home  garden. 
By  it  the  fruit  is  grown  of  a  larger  size  than  in  the  matted  rows, 
but  not  so  much  is  produced.  It  consists  in  setting  the  plants  at 
about  one  foot  distance  in  rows  two-and-a-half  or  three  feet  apart, 


8 


STRAWBERRIES. 


and  keeping  all  the  runners  cut  off.  Managed  on  this  plan  the 
plants  become  very  large,  have  many  crowns,  look  neat  and  pretty, 
aud  produce  a  good  amount  of  extra  large  fruit.  The  objection  to 
it  i«*  that  it  takes  three  or  four  times  as  many  plants  to  set  out  the 
land  as  are  needed  where  the  matted-row  system  is  followed,  and 
the  crop  is  not  so  large.  For  these  reasons  this  system  is  not  fol- 
lowed by  commercial  growers. 

MATTED-ROW  SYSTEM. — All  large  growers  pursue  very  nearly 
the  following  plan:  After  the  land  is  prepared  in  the  spring  it  is 
marked  out  with  a  corn-marker,  four  feet  one  way  and  two  feet  the 
other,  and  the  plants  are  set  at  the  intersections.  The  horse  culti- 
vator is  run  both  ways  until  the  plants  commence  to  make  runners 
rapidly  (about  the  middle  of  July),  when  it  is  run  only  in  the  four- 
foot  intervals.  The  runners  are  then  pusfced  together  forming  a 
bed  or  matted  row,  which  by  autumn  will  be  eighteen  inches  wide. 
The  ground  between  the  rows  should  be  worked  as  often  as  once  in 
ten  days  throughout  the  growing  season  up  to  the  first  of  Septem- 
ber, after  which  cultivation  should  cease  for  the  year.  Keep  the 
soil  loose  and  be  sure  the  bed  is  free  from  weeds  on  the  approach  of 
winter.  For  some  varieties  two  feet  apart  in  the  row  may  leave 
larger  gaps  than  the  runners  can  fill,  but  almost  any  of  our  com- 
mercial kinds  will  easily  fill  up  even  larger  vacancies.  Such  varie- 
ties as  the  Crescent  will  easily  fill  up  intervals  of  three  feet  in  rich 

soil.    The  runners  should  stand  about  six  inches  apart  in  the  bed 

by  the  first  of  September. 

Trimming  and  Setting  the  Plants.— The  plants  when  dug 

should  have  all  the  dead  leaves,  pieces  of  runners  and  blossoms 

trimmed  off,  and  if  there  is  a  considerable  growth  of  leaves  they 

too  should  be  cut  off.    All  flowers  that  appear  the  first  year 

should  be  taken  off.    If  the  roots  are  large  they  are  not  readily 

planted,  and  it  is  customary  to  shorten  them  to  about  three  inches. 

The  way  growth  starts  from  these  pruned  roots  is  shown  in  Fig.  1. 

If  a  great  mop  of  roots  is  planted  in 

a  bunch  a  part  of  them  is  very  apt  to 

rot.    Perhaps  as  good  a  way  as  any 

to  set  the  plants  is  with  a  spade. 

This  requires  two  persons,  generally 

a  man  and  a  boy,  to  do  the  work  rap- 
idly.   After  the  land  is  marked  out 

the  man  places  the  spade  with  the 

back  side  away  from  him,  presses  it 

about  six  inches  into  the  moist  earth, 

moves  it  from  him  and  lifts  it  out. 

The  boy  takes  up  a  plant,  separates 

the  roots,  and  puts  them  in  the  hole. 

The   man   puts   the   spade    in    the 

ground  about  four  inches  nearer  him 

than  he  had  it  before  and  presses 

the  soil  against  the  plant.    The  boy    FIG.  1.   Groivth  of  pruned  roots. 


STRAWBERRIES.  » 

finishes  the  operation  by  firming  the  plant  in  the  soil  with  h  is 
hands.  As  soon  as  the  planting  is  done  the  cultivator  should  be 
started  to  loosen  up  the  soil.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep 
the  plants  from  getting  dry  when  planting  them  out. 

Winter  Protection.— Under  whatever  system  the  straw- 
berry may  be  grown,  it  is  benefited  by  being  protected  in  winter 
by  a  mulch  of  sufficient  thickness  to  prevent  frequent  freezing  and 
thawing,  which  is  very  injurious  to  the  plants.  Of  course  a  cover- 
ing of  snow  will  answer  the  purpose,  but  it  is  not  safe  to  trust  to  it. 
This  mulch  should  consist  of  marsh  hay,  corn-stalks,  straw,  boughs, 
or  any  litter  that  does  not  lie  too  close  anl  is  free  from  weed  seeds. 
It  should  be  put  on  deep  enough  to  cover  the  plants.  Nothing  is 
gained  by  covering  very  deep.  This  should  be  applied  after  the 
ground  is  frozen  hard  enough  to  bear  up  a  team.  In  spring  it 
should  be  drawn  from  over  the  plants  into  the  intervals  between 
the  plants,  where  it  will  act  to  preserve  the  moisture  during  dry 
weather  and  to  keep  the  fruit  clean. 

Avoiding  Frosts.— It  sometimes  happens  that  the  blossoms 
which  appear  about  the  middle  of  May,  and  are  quite  susceptible 
to  frosts,  are  seriously  injured  of  cold  nights.  They  may  often  be 
protected  when  in  this  cri  ical  condition  by  taking  the  mulching 
from  the  rows  and  throwing  it  back  again  on  the  plants  for  a  few 
days,  or  until  the  danger  from  frost  is  past.  Hay  or  straw  sprink- 
led with  coal  tar  may  be  burned  to  windward  of  the  bed  of  frosty 
nights,  and  will  make  dense,  heavy  clouds  of  smoke  that  wi1!  afford 
protection.  If1  the  winter  mulch  is  left  on  as  late  as  it  is  safe  to  do 
so,  which  is  until  the  new  growth  starts  strongly,  it  will  serve  to 
retard  the  plants  and  they  will  not  come  into  blossom  until  a  week 
or  so  later  than  they  otherwise  would  were  the  mulch  removed  early 
in  the  spring  and  not  until  the  great  danger  of  frost  is  pact.  This 
latter  method  makes  the  crop  late,  but  I  think  it  the  safest  plan  to 
follow.  An  ordinary  frost  seldom  destroys  the  stamens,  its  dam- 
age being  confined  to  the  pistils,  therefore  the  center  or  berry  part 
of  the  flower  turns  black. 

How  to  Continue  Beds  in  Bearing.— Some  growers  pre- 
fer to  fruit  their  strawberry  beds  but  one  season.  I  think  it  best 
to  fruit  the  bed  at  least  two  seasons,  provided  it  is  in  good  condi- 
tion when  the  first  crop  is  gathered.  I  have  often  had  the  second' 
crop  on  a  strawberry  bed  better  than  the  first,  but  generally  it  is 
not  quite  as  good.  The  best  plan  to  follow  with  an  old  strawberry 
bed  is  about  as  follows : 

RENEWING  STRAWBERRY  BEDS. — There  are  several  ways  of  re- 
newing an  old  strawberry  bed,  but  perhaps  the  following  plan  is  as 
good  as  any:  As  soon  as  may  be  after  the  crop  is  gathered  the  bed 
is  closely  mowed  and  all  the  weeds  and  strawberry  leaves  are 
burned.  A  plow  is  then  run  on  either  side  of  the  matted  rows  and 
all  but  about  one  foot  in  width  of  it  is  turned  under.  The  furrow 
thus  made  is  filled  with  fine  rotted  manure  and  the  cultivator  set 


10  STRAWBERRIES. 

going.  The  plants  remaining  are  then  thinned  out  with  a  hoe  and 
special  pains  is  taken  to  cut  out  all  weeds  and  old  or  weak  plants. 
This  leaves  the  old  bed  clean  and  with  plenty  of  manure  close  by, 
in  which  the  old  plants  can  make  new  roots.  The  plants  soon  send 
up  new  leaves  which  are  much  healthier  than  they  would  be  were 
the  old  foliage  allowed  to  remain,  and  if  we  have  an  ordinary  sea- 
son an  abundance  of  runners  will  be  sent  out,  and  by  winter  the 
old  bed  will  look  nearly  as  vigorous  as  a  new  one. 

This  method  of  renewing  the  old  bed  has  the  merit  of  destroy- 
ing all  the  diseased  foliage,  and  to  some  extent  also  injurious  in- 
sects. It  is  very  important  that  the  renewed  bed  be  kept  healthy 
by  frequent  cultivation  and  the  destruction  of  any  insects  that  may 
appear  in  order  to  have  it  do  its  best  in  fruiting  the  following 
season. 

Sexuality  of  the  Strawberry  Blossom.— We  have  two 
classes  of  varieties  of  the  strawberry,  distinguished  by  their  blos- 
som. One  class  has  perfect  flowers,  i,  e.,  all  its  flowers  have  sta- 
mens and  pistils  (male  and  female  organs).  These  can  be  planted 
alone  without  any  other  variety  near,  and  will  produce  fruit.  This 


FIG.  a.    Bi-sexual,  or  perfect  Jloicer         Fa;.  3.    Pistillate,  or  imperfect 

of  strawberry.    A,  petal;  B,  sep-  flower  of  strawberry.    A,  petal; 

al;  C,  Stamens;  D,  2iistils.  B,  sepal;    D.  pistils  (notice  the 

stamens  are  wanting. 

class  may  be  called  bi-sexual  (See  Fig.  2).  The  other  class  has 
pistils  (female  organs),  but  does  jiot  have  stamens,  or  has  but  very 
few  of  them.  This  class  is  caUed  pistillate  (See  Fig.  3) .  It  is  found 
in  practice  that  the  varieties  with  pistillate  blossoms  generally  pro- 
duce more  fruit  than  those  with  bisexual  flowers,  consequently  it 
is  advantageous  to  raise  as  many  of  such  k'nds  as  possible  and  as 
few  of  the  others,  but  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  of  the  bi-sexual 
kinds  near  the  pistillate  kinds  or  no  fruit  is  produced.  Just  the 
proportion  that  should  exist  between  the  bi-sexual  and  the  pistil- 
late kinds  is  a  disputed  point,  but  it  is  probably  about  one  to  three 
or  four,  depending  upon  the  weather  at  the  time  of  blossoming. 
It  is  safe  to  say  that  when  pistillate  kinds  are  used  every 
third  row  should  be  of  some  bi-sexual  kind,  selected  so  that  it  will 


STRAWBERRIES.  11 

be  in  flower  at  the  same  time  as  the  pistillate  variety  The  neglect 
of  this  precaution  is  a  constantly  recurring  source  of  disappoint- 
ment. Some  growers  recommend  that  every  third  plant  in  the  row 
be  of  some  bi-sexual  kind.  The  objection  to  this  way  in  practice  is 
that  the  pistillate  kinds,  being  often  the  strongest  growers,  may 
soon  crowd  out  the  weaker  variety ;  and  then,  again,  when  this 
plan  is  followed  the  plants  when  taken  up  are  SD  hopelessly  mixed 
as  to  be  worthless  for  setting  a  new  bed. 

Figure  2  shows  the  blossom  of  a  bi-sexual  or  perfect  flowering 
variety,  and  this  differs  from  Fig.  3  chiefly  in  having  between  the 
petals  and  the  pistils  a  ring  of  many  stamens.  This  difference  is 
plainly  seen  in  flowers  of  the  different  kinds  by  any  one  who  will 
take  the  pains  to  more  than  glance  at  them.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
Fig.  2  is  shown  with  six  petals  and  Fig.  3  five  petals.  •  This  is  not  a 
constant  variation  between  the  two  kinds  and  is  of  no  importance, 
but  it  is  thus  shown  to  call  attention  to  the  difference  in  the  num- 
ber of  their  petals  in  varieties,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  a 
strawberry  blossom  with  seven  petals,  although  the  normal  number 
is  five.  Different  flowers  on  the  same  plant  even  may  vary  in  num- 
ber of  their  petals. 

Dry  Berries,  "Nubbins." — Sometimes  the  berries  fail  to  fill 
out  evenly  all  over,  or  are  small  and  mostly  dry  and  hard  or  one 
sided.  This  probably  results  ft  om  the  pistils,  or  a  part  of  them, 
being  injured  by  the  frost,  dry  wind,  or  an  unusually  severe  rain  or 
hail,  which,  by  destroying  the  delicate  pistils  prevents  the  forma- 
tion of  seeds  and  the  development  of  the  berry  adjoining,  for  it  has 
been  conclusively  proven  that  unless  the  seeds  are  perfected  the 
fleshy  part  near  them  does  not  fill  out.  Somet:mes  the  blossoms 
are  stung  by  a  snout-beetle,  then  they  hardly  form  berries  at  all. 

Picking  and  Marketing. — If  the  berries  are  to  be  sold  great 
care  should  be  taken  to  have  them  carefully  picked.  Green  berries 
are  bad  enough  to  have  in  a  box,  but,  if  they  are  to  be  shipped, 
over-ripe  ones  will  cause  much  more  trouble,  for  they  are  sure  to 
decay  before  they  reach  their  destination  and  to  damage  all  the 
good  fruit.  On  this  account  the  beds  should  be  picked  clean  every 
day  in  warm  weather.  The  pickers  will  need  careful  .watching  so 
as  to  be  sure  they  do  not  put  poor  berries  in  the  bottom  of  the 
boxes,  and  that  they  pick  all  the  ripe  berries  so  none  will  be  left  to 
get  over-ripe.  It  is  always  desirable  to  pick  fruit,  that  is  to  be 
shipped,  in  the  cool  of  the  day  unless  it  should  be  wet. 

Gift  packages  holding  twenty -four  boxes  are  almost  universally 
used  in  this  state.  They  cost  about  twenty  cents  per  crate,  includ- 
ing bcxes  and  cover.  They  are  always  made  so  there  is  room  to 
heap  up  the  boxes  and  to  allow  of  a  circulation  of  air  through  the 
boxes.  A  box  holding  little  more  than  a  dry  measure  quart  when 
even  full  and  nearly  a  liquid  measure  quart  when  heaped,  is  the 
size  generally  used.  It  is  called  the  scant  quart  box. 

Diseases. — The  strawberry  is  subject  to  several  diseases,  but 
only  one  is  very  serious.  It  is  commonly  called  uLeaf  Blight," 


12 


STRAWBERRIES. 


"Rust"  or  "Sunburn,"  (Sphcerella  fragarice) .  It  is  a  minute  para- 
sitic plant  which  hives  in  the  tissues  of  the  leaves  and  stem.  In  the 
early  spring  small  purple  or  red  spots  appear  on  the  new  leaves. 
About  the  time  the  plants  are  exhausted  by  fruiting,  or  perhaps 
before  the  fruit  is  fairly  ripe,  these  spots  increase  rapidly  in  size, 
and  in  a  few  days  what  was  a  promising  strawberry  bed  is  dried 
up  and  worthless.  Many  varieties  that  are  hardy  otherwise  have 
foliage  that  is  sus- 
ceptible to  this  dis- 
ease, and  some  kinds 
should  not  be  plant- 
ed unless  some  fun- 
gicide is  used  to  pro- 


tect  them  from  it. 

Our  growers  at 
present  prefer  to  ob- 
viate the  necessity 
of  using  fungicides 
byplanting  only 
those  varieties  that 
are  very  robust  and 
healthy  However,  FIG.  4.  Leaf  of  strawberry,  marked  by  Leaf  Blight, 
it  may  be  desirable  ln  its  early  Stage  (Sphaerellafragarm.) 

to  grow  some  varieties  with  weak  foliage,  such  for  instance  as  the 
Captain  Jack,  a  fine  bi-sexual  kind  that  was  formerly  very  healthy 
but  of  late  years  has  frequently  been  ruined  by  blight.  In  such  a 
case  the  newly  set  plants  should  be  sprayed  three  or  more  times 
the  first  season,  commencing  as  soon  as  the  young  plants  are  well 
established,  and  twice  the  following  spring,  with  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture or  some  other  fungicide.  To  do  this  requires  no  more  labor 
or  expense  than  it  does  to  spray  for  the  potato  bug  the  same  num- 
ber of  times,  and  the  grower  will  be  well  repaid  in  the  increased 
crop.  Highly  cultivated  plants  are  less  liable  to  diseases  than  those 
that  are  neglected. 

Bordeaux  Mixture.— This  is  made  by  slacking  two  pounds 
of  quick  lime  in  20  gallons  of  water  in  one  barrel,  and  dissolving 
three  pounds  of  sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol)  in  two  gallons  of 
water  in  another  bar<  el.  A  piece  of  coarse  burlap  is  now  put  over 
the  barrel  containing  the  sulphate  of  copper,  and  the  slacked  lime 
and  water  is  strained  through  it  and  the  two  compounds  are  well 
mixed  together.  It  is  now  ready  to  use  and  should  be  applied  with 
a  spray  rump.  This  is  the  same  solution  that  is  so  successfully 
used  to  prevent  blight  and  rot  on  potatoes,  mildew  on  grapes,  etc. 

White  Grab  (Lachttonteriia  Sp.) — This  is  the  common  white 
grub  found  in  sod  land  and  in  manure.  It  is  the  larvae  of  a  large 
beetle,  and  may  be  very  disasterous  when  the  plants  are  set  on  sod 
land,  but  is  seldom  if  ever  very  injurious  under  other  conditions. 

Leaf  Roller.— This  insect  is  injurious  in  the  larvas  stage.  In 
feeding  it  folds  up  the  leaves  by  drawing  the  edges  together  by 


STRAWBERRIES.  lo 

silken  threads  and  then  eats  out  the  soft  parts.  There  are  two 
broods  of  this  insect  during  the  year.  The  females  deposit  their 
eggs  on  the  leaves  where  they  soon  hatch,  and  the  worms  com- 
mence their  work.  The  second  brood  winters  over  in  the  pupa  state 
in  the  ground  near  the  plants. 

REMEDY.— The  larvae  are  not  easily  reached  with  any  insecti- 
cide as  they  are  nicely  protected  by  the  folded  leaf.  The  first 
brood  is  rather  difficult  to  destroy  without  injuring  the  fruit. 
Since  the  second  brood  does  not  appear  until  July  they  may  be  de- 
stroyed by  mowing  off  and  burning  the  foliage  of  the  plants. 
Where  there  are  but  a  few  infected  leaves  they  should  be  crushed 
in  the  hand,  a  few  trials  showing  the  best  method  of  crushing  the 
worm  inside. 

Shading  the  Strawberry  Bed.— Some  experiments  recent- 
ly made  seem  to  indicate  that  the  fruitfulness  of  strawberries  may 
be  increased  by  partially  shading  them,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  While 
this  might  not  be  practical  on  a  large  scale,  yet  it  is  so  very  inex- 
pensive that  it  could  easily  be  tried  in  the  home  garden.  It  is  sug- 
gested that  such  a  screen,  w.th  a  light  wind-break  near  by,  would 


FIG.  5.    Screen,  for  shading  strawberry  bed. 

prevent  the  pollen  being  blown  away,  or  the  flowers  or  plants  from 
being  seriously  injured  by  frost,  drying  winds  or  hail.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  generally  the  best  fruit,  and  certainly  the  best 
late  fruit  of  the  strawberry,  is  found  in  the  wild  state  in  somewhat 
protected  and  shaded  locations,  and  that  in  such  places  the  plants 
are  most  vigorous  and  the  foliage  is  seldom  diseased.  Many  ways 
of  making  such  a  screen  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  reader,  but 
it  may  be  well  to  add  that  it  should  be  at  least  six  feet  from  the 
ground— to  allow  of  a  good  circulation  of  air  and  room  to  cultivate 
— and  covered  with  willow  or  other  brush  sufficient  to  keep  out  not 
more  than  one-half  the  sunlight. 


14 


CJTKAWBEKKIES. 


Varieties.— The  varieties  vary  much  in  size,  color,  and  qual- 
ity of  the  fruit  and  vigor,  productiveness  and  hardiness  of  the 
plants.  The  flowers  also  vary,  as  has  been  mentioned  under  the 
head  of  "sexuality  of  the  flowers."  There  are  now  probably  over 
a  hundred  varieties  catalogued  by  nurserymen,  and  new  varieties 
are  brought  out  each  year,  but  of  the  new  kinds  that  we  have  tried 
probably  not  one  in  twenty -five  has  been  worth  the  keeping.  It  is 
well  not  to  pay  a  high  price  for  plants.  The  new  kihds,  if  good, 
are  soon  offered  at  reasonable  figures.  As  a  rule  it  is  not  necessary 
to  pay  over  twenty-five  cents  per  dozen,  or  one  dollar  per  hundred 
for  plants.  In  quantities  of  five  hundred  or  more  they  can  be 
bought  at  much  less  cost.  About  two  hundred  plants,  if  well  set 
out  and  cared  for,  will  give  all  the  fruit  needed  by  the  ordinary 
family. 

WARFIELD. — Probably  the  most  popular  berry  grown.  Blos- 
soms, pistillate ;  plant  healthy,  a  strong  grower,  producing  a  great 
quantity  of  runners,  and  is  very  fruitful.  The  fruit  ripens  very 
early,  is  of  good  size,  dark  red  and  firm,  but  not  sweet  or  very  large. 
A  good  variety  to  ship. 

HAVBRLAND.— A  popular  productive  variety,  having  pistillate 
flowers.  The  fruit  is  of  the  best  quality  but  not  very  firm,  unless 
it  is  picked  before  it  is  fully  colored ;  a  valuable  variety  for  home 
use  or  near  market.  Not  quite  as  early  as  the  Warfield.  Needs 
special  care  in  mulching  to  keep  the  fruit  clean,  as  it  ripens  close 
to  the  ground.  Very  healthy. 

CRESCENT.— For  many  years  this  variety  has  been  very  popu- 
lar, but  the  Haverland  and  Warned  are  generally  supplanting  it  on 
account  of  their  being  more  ^reductive.  Fairly  productive,  vigor- 
ous, healthy,  early.  Berries  of  medium  size,  bright  red,  firm,  quite 
acid.  A  good  shipping  kind  and  largely  planted.  Flowers  pistillate. 

JESSIE.— A  bi-sexual  variety.  The  fruit  is  very  excellent  and 
it  is  a  fairly  good  pollenizer  for  most  kinds,  but  it  is  a  little  more 
liable  to  be  injured  when  in  blossom  than  many  varieties. 

CAPTAIN  JACK. — Flowers  bi-sexual.  An  excellent  variety.  For- 
merly very  healthy  and  widely  grown,  but  for  a  few  years  past  has 
blighted  badly.  It  should  be  treated  with  some  fungicide  to  pre- 
serve the  foliage. 

BEDER  WOOD.— An  exceedingly  promising  bi-sexual  variety 
that  has  not  yet  been  widely  tried. 

MICHAEL'S  EARLY  —A  strong  grower,  producing  lots  of  pollen, 
but  rather  inferior  as  a  fruit  producer.  We  think  it  one  of  the 
very  best  for  producing  pollen  to  fertilize  other  kinds.  Verv 
healthy.  Bi-sexual  flowers. 

WILSON.— One  of  the  oldest  varieties  in  cultivation,  and  where 
healthy  is  still  a  most  excellent  pollenizer.  It  is,  however,  some- 
what fickle  about  its  location. 

Other  varieties  of  considerable  merit  are— of  pistillate  kinds— 
Bubach,  Princes,  and  Gandy,  a  very  late  variety,  with  bi-sexual 
flowers. 


CHAPTER    II. 


RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES. 


^OME  species  of  the  cultivated  raspberry  are  found  indigenous 
&*•  to  almost  every  climate.  Many  species  are  very  prolific  of  fine 
fruit  in  their  wild  state,  and  all  of  them  improve  rapidly  under  cul- 
tivation. It  is  an  especially  desirable  fruit  for  temperate  climates, 
where  it  is  found  at  its  best.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  the 
adaptability  of  the  different  species  as  well  as  varieties  to  various 
climates,  but  there  is  no  section  of  Minnesota  where  some  kinds 
cannot  be  safely  and  surely  grown  if  proper  care  be  used  in  plant- 
ing and  cultivating.  It  is  a  surer  crop  than  the  strawberry,  and 
the  plantations  of  it  will  last  indefinitely,  seldom  needing  renewing 
more  than  once  in  ten  years,  and  frequently  producing  abundantly 
over  a  longer  period. 

Species. — There  are  four  species  to  which  our  cultivated 
kinds  belong,  and  they  quite  readily  hybridize  together.  They  all 
have  perennial  roots  and  biennial  canes ;  i.  e.,  the  canes  grow  one 
year  and  the  next  mature  fruit  and  die,  so  that  there  are  always 
two  sets  of  canes  to  each  plant  during  the  growing  season. 

(1)  Jiubux  strigoms.    This  is  the  red  raspberry  of  our  woods : 
there  are,  however,  some  varieties  of  it  that  have  yellow  fruit. 
Plants  belonging  to  this  class  increase  by  suckers,  which  they  gen- 
erally produce  abundantly  from  all  the  surface  roots.    All  of  the 
most  desirable  red  raspberries  in  cultivation,  with  possibly  one  ex- 
ception, belong  to  this  class. 

(2)  Rnbw  Ideas.    European  raspberry.     In  form  and  color  of 
fruit  and  method  of  propagation  this  resembles  the  preceding,  but 
differ^  from  it  botanically  in  several  minor  points.    Varieties  of 
this  are  not  generally  as  well  adapted  to  the  climatic  conditions  of 
this  state  as  our  native  species. 

(3)  Jtubns  neglect  n.t.    There  1s  much  difference  of  opinion  in 
regard  to  the  plants  grouped  under  this  species.    Some  of  the  best 
botanists  consider  the  varieties  generally  put  here  to  be  hybrids 
between  R.  Striyosus  and  R.  Occidental^.    The  fruit  from  this  class 
is  often  of  a  purplish  color,  but  is  sometimes  yellow,  and  the  plants 
often  increase  both  by  suckers  and  by  tip-layers. 

(4)  Hub  UK  Occidentalis.     Black-cap,  or  thimbleberry.    A  native 
species,   very  distinct  from  one  and  two;  increasing  by  layers. 
i.  e. ,  the  tips  of  the  new  growth  bend  to  the  ground  and  take  root 

16 


16 


RASPBERRIES   AND   BLACKBERRIES. 


the  latter  part  of  the  summer.  They  seldom  produce  suckers.  The 
fruit  is  generally  black,  but  there  are  a  few  varieties  with  yellow- 
ish fruit. 

All  the  cultivated  raspberries  are  commonly  referred  to  as : 

SUCKERINO  KINDS;  those  that  increase  by  suckers,  which  com- 
prise chiefly  varieties  belonging  to  the  three  species  first  named. 

TIP-ROOTING  KINDS;  those  that  increase  by  tip  layers,  which 
chiefly  comprise  varieties  belonging  to  R.  Occidentalis,  but  a  few 
that  belong  to  R.  neglect™. 

Propagation.— The  raspberry  may  be  propagated  by  the  fol- 
lowing methods: 

BY  SEED.— All  the  cultivated  kinds  may  be  grown  from  seed, 
but  plants  from  seed  are  not  "true,"  t.  e.,  are  not  like  the  plants 
from  which  they  came,  and  it  is  only  an  occasional  seedling  that  is 
nearly  as  good  as  any  of  the  varieties  commonly  cultivated.  To 
raise  seedlings  the  "dead"  ripe  fruit  should  be  crushed  in  a  small 
amount  of  dry  sand,  and  the  whole  sown  at  once  in  a  light  moist 
soil,  somewhat  shaded.  The  seed  will  seldom  germinate  until  the 
following  spring,  when  after  the  plants  are  large  enough  to  handle 
they  may,  if  too  thick  in  the  seed  beds,  be  set  out  in  another  bed  to 
grow  the  first  season,  or  if  not  crowded  be  left  to  grow  where  they 
are.  The  plants  should  be  taken  up  in  the  fall,  "heeled  in,"  and 
planted  again  the  following  spring,  when  they  will  bear  fruit  the 
following  (third)  year.  Another  way  is  to  sow  the  seed  as  soon  as 
obtained  in  small  boxes,  and  cover  them  lightly  with  leaves  or 
litter.  In  February  bring  the  boxes  into  a  greenhouse,  transplant 
to  other  boxes  as  soon  as  the  seedlings  have  their  third  leaves 
formed,  and  plant  permanently  outdoors  as  soon  as  large  enough 
and  the  weather  permits ;  by  this  system  some  fruit  is  generally 
obtained  the  second  year. 

BY  ROOT  CUTTINGS.  —Most  of  the  varieties  of  raspberries  com- 
ing under  the  first  three  spe- 
cies mentioned  produce 
sprouts  from  the  roots  (Fig.  6) , 
and  these  are  generally  used 
to  start  new  plantations,  but 
when  there  is  a  shortage  for 
this  purpose  it  is  customary  to 
grow  plants  of  the  surkering 
kinds  from  root  cuttings, 
which  may  be  made  as  fol- 
lows: In  the  autumn  after 
the  plants  have  stopped  grow- 
ing the  roots  are  taken  up,  cut 
into  pieces  two  or  three  inches 
long  and  put  in  boxes,  with 
alternate  layers  of  sand  or 
loam.  The  boxes  are  then 
buried  in  some  well  drained  spot  until  the  land  is  fit  to  work  in  the 


PIG.  6  Raspberry  sets  of  the 
ing  class.  A,  before  buds  have  start- 
ed. B,  after  buds  have  started.  The, 
stem  should  be  cut  off  at  the  cross  Hue. 


RASPBERRIES   AM)   BLACKBERRIES.  17 

spring,  when  the  roots  should  show  a  callous  on  the  cut  ends.  The 
roots  are  then  planted  three  or  four  inches  apart  in  furrows  and 
covered  about  two  inches  deep  in  rich  soil.  By  the  end  of  the  sea- 
son they  will  have  made  plants  large  enough  to  set  out  (  Fig.  6). 

This  plan  for  growing  plants  from  root  cuttings  may  be  greatly 
changed  in  detail,  but  the  general  plan  is  the  same.  It  is  always 
best  to  make  up  the  root  cuttings  in  the  fall,  but  cuttings  from 
strong  growing  kinds  do  nearly  as  well  made  up  in  the  spring.  The 
cuttings  are  generally  made  with  a  sharp  knife  or  a  pair  of  pruning 
shears,  but  nearly  equally  good  results  may  be  had  by  cutting  the 
roots  in  a  hay  cutter. 

BY  LAYERS.— The  Black-cap  and  some  other  kinds  grow  most 
readily  from  layers.  The  tips  of  the  new  growth  reach  the  ground 
about  the  latter  part  of  August  or  first  of  September,  and  readily 
make  new  plants  if  held  in  place  (Fig.  7).  These  tips  should  be  cov- 
ered with  a  spadeful  of  soil, 
or  better,  be  inserted  three  or 
four  inches  into  a  hole  made 
by  pushing  a  spade  in  the 
ground.  They  will  be  well 
rooted  in  three  weeks.  These 
rooted  layers  will  be  found  to 
winter  over  most  safely  if 
allowed  to  remain  undisturbed 
until  spring,  but  should  have 
a  light  mulch  over  them  dur- 
ing winter.  They  may  be  win- 
tered over  if  dug  and  very 

^carefully  heeled  in,  or  kept  in 
FIG.  7.    "Cap"  raspberry  set  or  plant  of        ,,  cellar  but  the  Dlan  rec 
one  season  s  growth.     The  straight  line  a  co 

shows  the  bad  that  will  start  into  or oivthommQu^edi  should  be  followed 
in  the  spring  and  form  the  new  plant.      when  practicable.      It  is  not 

considered  good  policy  to  plant  the  layers  in  the  fall  as  they  are 
very  liable  to  winter  injury  when  disturbed  in  autumn.  In  digging 
the  layers  about  ten  inches  of  the  cane  should  be  cut  off  with  the 
roots  to  facilitate  handling  (Fig.  7).  It  is  generally  believed  that 
unprotected  plants  are  much  hardier  when  the  layers  remain  at- 
tached to  the  plant  during  winter  than  they  are  if  the  layers  are 
cut  off  in  the  fall. 

Location  and  Soil.— The  common  varieties  of  the  raspberry 
succeed  admirably  in  any  good  soil ;  but  the  suckering  class,  which 
includes  chiefly  the  red  varieties,  produce  rather  better  than  the 
black-caps  in  moist,  heavy  loam,  and  the  latter  do  best  in  a  sandy 
loam.  A  northern  slope  is  generally  better  than  a  southerly  one  as 
it  is  less  liable  to  injury  from  drouth,  which  frequently  shortens 
the  fruiting  season  in  bad  situations ;  but  it  is  well  known  that 
some  varieties  withstand  dry  weather  and  other  climatic  troubles 
far  better  than  others  of  the  same  species. 


18  RASPBERRIES    AND    BLACKBERRIES. 

Manure  and  Preparation  of  Land. — Ail  varieties  need 
high  cultivation.  The  land  should  be  heavily  manured  and  thor- 
oughly plowed  and  brought  into  the  best  condition  for  corn  or  other 
gross  feeding  crop.  The  best  fertilizer  is  well  rotted  barnyard 
manure.  Raspberries,  especially  the  black-cap  kinds,  will  produce 
very  well  even  on  quite  poor  soil,  but  rich  land  and  thorough  culti- 
vation is  necessary  for  the  best  success  with  any  variety. 

Time  of  Planting. — The  suckering  kinds  may  be  planted  in 
autumn  or  spring  with  safety.  When  the  work  is  done  in  the 
autumn  great  care  should  be  taken  to  firm  the  soil  around  the 
roots,  and  a  forkful  of  mulch  over  each  hill  is  a  great  protection 
against  winter  injury.  Many  growers  prefer  to  set  in  autumn,  as 
at  that  season  they  can  give  the  work  more  careful  attention  than 
in  the  spring.  Then  again  the  new  sprouts  from  sets  (suckers) 
start  very  early,  and  if  the  work  is  delayed  in  the  spring  they  are 
often  broken  off  or  injured  in  the  work  of  planting.  Black-caps 
and  other  tip-rooting  kinds  should  never  be  set  in  the  fall,  as  they 
are  very  liable  to  be  winter- killed  if  moved  at  that  season.  They 
should  always  be  set  in  the  spring. 

Selection  of  Plants.— Since  the  canes  are  biennial  there  is 
no  such  thing  as  two  or  three-year-old  plants,  as  with  trees,  when 
we  refer  to  the  stems ;  but  the  roots  may  be  of  any  age,  as  they  are 
perennial.  Plants  of  one  season's  growth  are  best  to  begin  with. 
Sucker  plants  are  generally  best  with  the  varieties  increasing  in 
that  way;  but  plants  from  ro3t  cuttings  may  be  just  as  good,  or 
even  better,  when  well  grown:  The  old  stools  may  be  broken  up 
and  the  plants  set  out,  but  such  sets  have  few  fibrous  roots  and 
often  start  slowly ;  with  the  tip-rooting  kinds  plants  obtained  by 
breaking  up  the  old  stools  are  not  so  good  as  those  from  the  sucker- 
ing  kinds  obtained  the  same  way,  and  should  not  be  used  when 
avoidable,  as  they  are  very  apt  to  fail  even  with  the  best  of  care. 
It  is  important  to  use  only  vigorous  sets  taken  from  perfectly 
healthy  stock.  Old  plantations  of  raspberries  frequently  become 
diseased  and  plants  from  them  are  often  worthless,  consequently 
care  should  be  exercised  in  buying  plants. 

Planting  and  Cultivation.— After  the  land  is  thoroughly 
prepared  the  plants  should  be  set  out  in  rows  seven  feet  apart  and 
at  three  foot  intervals  in  the  rows,  putting  two  plants  at  a  place. 
The  distance  between  the  rows  may  be  lessened  to  five  feet  if  more 
space  is  not  available  and  the  weaker  growing  kinds  are  planted, 
but  the  greater  distance  admits  of  cultivation  even  when  the 
bushes  are  loaded  witk  fruit.  It  allows  sunlight  to  readily  reach 
the  plants  and  is  most  satisfactory  every  way,  and  for  profit  they 
should  never  be  set  any  nearer ;  while  for  some  of  the  strongest 
growing  varieties  the  hills  should  not  be  nearer  than  five  feet  in 
the  row.  At  the  time  of  planting  the  canes  should  be  cut  off  close 
to  the  ground  and  no  fruit  allowed  to  form  the  first  season. 

A  good  way  to  plant  is  to  mark  out  the  land  the  three-foot  way 
and  then  furrow  out  where  the  rows  are  to  come.  Set  the  plants 


RASPBERRIES   AND    BLACKBERRIES. 


in  the  furrows,  covering  them  temporarily  with  the  feet,  and  after- 
wards more  carefully  with  a  hoe,  firming  them  in  with  the  feet  at 
the  same  time.  The  .rows  should  preferably  run  north  and  south, 
for  planted  in  this  way  the  fruit  is  shaded  by  the  new  growth  dur- 
ing the  hottest  part  of  the  day  during  the  period  of  ripening. 

DEPTH  TO  PLANT.— Black-cap  raspberry  plants  should  be  set 
about  the  same  depth  in  the  soil  as  they  naturally  grew.  The  roots 
should  be  carefully  spread  and  the  soil  well  firmed  over  them.  The 
suckering  kinds  should  be  planted  a  little  'deeper  than  they  natur- 
ally grew  and  be  well  firmed  in. 

CULTIVATION. — The  soil  should  be  kept  loose  with  a  horse  culti- 
vator and  the  rows  free  from  weeds.  If  the  land  gets  hard  the  one- 
horse  plow  may  be  used,  but  the  land  should  be  kept  flat  and  as 
free  from  ridges  as  possible.  Frequent  cultivation,  especially  in  a 
dry  time,  is  important. 

PRUNING  AND  THINNING. — Not  more  than  two  shoots  should  be 
permitted  to  grow  from  each  root  the  first  year,  and  these  should 
bo  pinch'- d  off  when  eighteen  inches  high  to  encourage  the  growth  of 
lateral  branches,  for  it  has  been  conclusively  proven  that  raspber- 
ries fruit  more  heavily  on  the  laterals  than  on  the  main  cane.  The 

second  and  succeeding 
years  the  suckering 
kinds  will  produce  a  lot 
of  sprouts  a1!  around 
the  hill ;  four  or  five  of 
those  nearest  the  hill 
should  be  allowed  to 
grow  arid  the  rest  treat- 
ed as  weeds.  If  a  great 
lot  of  these  suckers  are 
allowed  to  remain  but 
little  fruit  will  be  pro- 
duced. Black-cap  rasp- 
berries will  th:s  year 
send  up  a  half  dozen  or 
so  of  sprouts  at  the 
base  of  the  old  plants, 
and  enough  of  these 
should  be  removed  to  allow  the  remainder  to  properly  develop.  All 
these  sprouts  should  be  pinched  once  when  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
inches  high  (Fig.  8-9).  As  soon  as  the  fruit  has  been  gathered  the 
old  canes  which  have  borne  fruit  the  current  .year  should  be  cut  out 
and  destroyed.  (Fig.  10.)  In  the  spring  the  suckericg  kinds 
need  no  pruning,  but  the  lateral  canes  of  the  Black-cap  varieties 
should  be  shortened  back  to  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  (Fig.  11).  This 
is  very  important,  as  the  branches  of  this  kind  are  so  slender  that 
they  will  bend  to  the  ground  and  break  under  the  weight  of  fruit 
unless  severely  pruned,  or  they  may  set  more  fruit  than  they  can 
mature  and  the  whole  be  lost.  When  pruned  in  this  manner  the 


FIG.  S.  A,  ynnr.ff  Hack  raspberry  c.aitc  (IK  if 
appears  before  pinching.  B>  the.  sofne  <t 
short  time  after  fh-ing  pinched,  showing  the 
way  growth  starts  from  the  buds. 


<sO  RASPBERRIES   AND   BLACKBERRIES. 

fruit  will  be  much  larger  and  the  plant  will  yield  as  much  fruit  as 
if  all  the  canes  were  left  their  whole  length. 

MULCHING.— The  first  year  no  mnlching  is  needed;  but  the 
second  season,  as  early  as  the  middle  of  June,  the  rows  should  be 
mulched  for  two  feet  on  each  side  with  hay,  straw  or  litter,  or  with 
what  is  better  still,  green  clover  cut  when  in  blossom  and  put  on 
two  inches  deep.  The  latter  is  especially  desirable  because  it  lies 
close,  and  as  it  rots  in  one  season  and  is  very  rich  in  plant  food  it 
makes  a  good  manure.  This  material  keeps  the  land  moist,  the 
berries  clean,  and  kills  out  weeds.  After  putting  on  the  mulch  as 
recommended  there  will  still  be  a  space  two  and  a  half  feet  wide 
between  the  rows  where  the  cultivator  should  be  run  to  keep  the 
soil  loose.  Too  much  stress  can  hardly  be  laid  upon  the  importance 
of  mulching  this  fruit.  It  frequently  makes  a  difference  between  a 
good  profit  and  a  big  loss. 


FIG.  9. 


Flo. 


FIG.  9.    A,  Red  raspberry  cane  in  autumn  that  has  been,  properly  pinched  in 

summer.    B,  Cane  not  pinched. 
FIG.  10.  A,  The  fully  grown  cane  of  the  current  season's  growtJi  which  will 

fruit  next  season.    B.  Cane  two  seasons  old,  irhich  having  fruited, 

is  to  be  cut  away. 
FIG.  10.  Spring  pruned  Black-black  raspberry  pla-nt . 

SUPPORT.— It  is  desirable  in  this  climate  to  have  fhe  canes  sup- 
ported in  some  manner.  In  milder  sections,  where  winter  protec- 
tion is  not  necessary,  the  bushes  may  be  so  frequently  pinched  as 
to  make  them  form  little  trees  that  support  themselves ;  but  this 
kind  of  treatment  is  not  desirable  where  the  plants  have  to  be  cov- 
ered in  winter,  as  it  makes  them  so  very  stocky  they  cannot  be 
easily  laid  down.  A  very  good  support  for  rasperries  and  black- 
berries is  made  by  running  a  No.  12  galvanized  iron  wire  on  each 
side  of  the  bushes  attached  to  a  good  solid  post  at  each  end  of  the 
row.  This  wire  should  rest  on  nails  driven  in  stakes  set  twenty- 
five  feet  apart.  Such  a  support  permits  the  plants  to  move  gently 


RASPBERRIES   AND   BLACKBERRIES.  21 

in  the  wind  but  not  sufficiently  to  break  them  by  its  violence.    It 
keeps  the  fruit  off  the  ground  and  is  cheap  and  convenient. 

WINTER  PROTECTION.— As  a  rule  it  is  not  safe  to  allow  any 
known  variety  of  raspberries  to  go  through  the  winters  of  this  sec- 
tion without  some  kind  of  protection,  not  that  they  will  always  kill 
to  the  snow  line  if  not  protected,  but  because  covering  them  in- 
volves no  great  expense,  makes  them  almost  a  sure  crop,  and  the 
covered  plants  seem  to  have  more  vigor  than  those  left  exposed. 
There  are,  however,  locations  near  some  of  the  larger  lakes,  or 
where  surrounded  by  forests,  that  are  so  very  favorable  that  such 
varieties  as  the  Turner,  Souhegan,  and  even  the  Cuthbert,  are  not 
injured  when  left  unprotected  in  winter. 

The  bushes  should  be  covered  late  in  autumn  before  the  ground 
freezes  hard  and  should  not  be  handled  when  there  is  any  frost  in 

the  canes.  The  best 
covering  is  fresh 
earth.  In  laying 
them  down  com- 
mence at  the  north 
end  af  the  row,  re- 
move the  soil  from 
the  north  side  of  the 
hill,  about  four  inch- 
es deep,  with  a  gar- 
den fork ;  gather  the 
branches  together 
FIG.  12.  Canes  laid  down  for  wilder  but  not  yet  Wm1  a  two-tin ed 

fork,  press  gently  to 

the  north,  at  the  same  time  place  the  foot  firmly  on  the  base  of  the 
hill  and  press  hard,  bending  the  bush  in  the  root  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, and  as  little  as  may  be  in  the  canes,  until  rearly  flat  on  the 
ground  (Fig.  12),  and  hold  it  there  until  second  man  covers  with 
soil  sufficient  to  hold  them  down.  The  top  of  each  succeeding  hill 
will  lie  at  the  base  of  its  predecessor,  making  a  continuous  cover- 
ing. It  will  be  found  that  a  little  of  mulch  put  on  the  canes  first 
after  laying  them  down  will  hold  the  soil  put  on,  and  much  less  will 
be  required  than  if  no  mulchjs  used.  After  laying  them  all  down 
turn  a  furrow  against  each  side  of  the  rows,  covering  as  much  as 
possible,  and  draw  a  little  over  any  canes  that  may  be  left  exposed. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  use  soil  enough  to  barely  cover  the  canes. 
There  are  some  of  the  strong  growing  varieties,  such  as  the  Gregg, 
that  en  rich  land  are  very  difficult  to  cover.  With  them  it: will 
do  very  well  to  bend  as  nearly  to  the  ground  as  is  safe  and  cover 
the  tops  with  enough  soil  to  hold  them  in  place.  While  it  would 
be  better  to  cover  them  all  if  it  were  practicable,  yet  treated  in 
this  way  enough  snow  will  generally  lodge  in  the  canes  to  cover 
them,  and  if  this  is  supplemented  with  a  light  covering  of  coarse 
litter  or  straw  so  much  the  better.  If  mice  are  numerous  they 
must  be  poisoned,  or  they  may  eat  the  canes  under  the  mulch. 


22  RASPBERRIES   AND   BLACKBERRIES. 

LIFTING  CANES  IN  SPRING. — In  the  spring  use  a  round  lined 
fork;  carefully  remove  the  earth  and  raise  the  plants  to  a  slanting 
position.  It  Is  found  that  left  in  this  position  the  fruiting  canes  are 
shaded  by  the  new  growth  and  are  not  so  crowded  as  when  raised 
up  straight. 

A  Convenient  Box  Holder.— Thay- 
er's  berry-pickers'  box  carrier  (*ee  Fig.  13) 
for  use  in  picking  raspberries  and  black- 
berries, is  made  of  tin  of  a  size  to  easily 
hold  a  berry  box.  It  has  straps  to  fasten 
around  the  waist  of  the  picker,  and  a  slat- 
ted bottom,  so  the  berry  box  may  be  easily 
pushed  up  from  the  under  side  when  taken 
out.  Its  chief  advantage  is  that  it  leaves 
both  hands  of  the  picker  free  to  gather 
fruit  and  keeps  dirt  out  of  the  boxes. 

Diseases. — There  is  a  great  difference 
in  the  liability  to  diseases  of  1he  different  va- 
rieties of  the  raspberry.  Some  of  the  kinds 

producing  the  finest  fruit  are  so  weak  in  constitution  as  to  render 
them  valueless  for  cultivation,  and  only  those  kinds  are  profitable 
\v hich  are  strong  ahd  vigorous  in  constitution  and  resist  diseases 
without  recourse  to  special  treatment.  High  cultivation  will  be 
found  the  best  preventive  of  disease,  but  there  are  three  diseases 
that  are  occasionally  very  injurious  even  in  the  best  cultivated 
plantations. 

(1)  LEAF  CURL  —This  name  is  indicative  of  one  of  the  early 
stages  of  the  disease.    The  leaves  curl  up,  and  though  they  may 
remain  green  all  through  the  season  the  plants  make  a  poor,  weak 
growth.     The  fruit  is  dull  in  color,  small  in  size,  and  rather  bitter 
in  taste.    Later  the  plants  kill  out,  and  any  healthy  sets  with 
which  they  may  be  replaced  soon  succumb  to  the  trouble.    This 
disease  spreads  very  slowly,  and,  as  a  rule,  there  are  only  a  few 
infected  spots  in  a  plantation,  which  slowly  increase  in  size  from 
year  to  year.    The  spread  of  the  disease  may  be  prevented  to  a 
great  extent  by  pulling  and  burning  the  diseased  plants  as  fast  as 
they  appear.    In  setting  out  a  new  plantation  use  only  land  which 
has  not  been  in  raspberries  for  several  years,  and  to  take  great 
care  to  have  young,  healthy  sets.    Do  not  accept  plants  from  a 
weak  plantation  on  any  account. 

(2)  RED  ORANGE  RUST  (Cacoma  luminatum). — This  is  most  hurt- 
ful to  the  black  cap  raspberries,  though  it  frequently  injures  other 
kinds.    It  produces  a  weaK  appearance  in  the  canes  and  foliage, 
and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  the  underside  of  the  foliage 
becomes  completely  covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  brilliant  orange 
colored  spores,  which  easily  rub  off.    One  soon  comes  to  know  the 
plants  that  are  diseased  even  before  the  spores  appear,  and  they 
should  be  pulled  and  burned  at  once.    This  is  especially  necessary 
with  the  black-cap  varieties ;  but  even  with  these,  if  the  affected 


RASPBERRIES   AND   BLACKBERRIES. 


23 


plants  are  destroyed,  the  disease  may  generally  be  kept  in  check 
until  a  new  plantation  can  be  well  started,  and  sometimes  assidu- 
ous attention  to  pulling  and  burning  results  in  stamping  out  the 
disease. 

(3)  ANTHRACUOSE,  OR  CANE-RDST— Also  known  as  the  rasp- 
berry cane-rust.  It  manifests  itself  by  weakening  the  growth  and 
causing  the  bark  of  the  canes  to  become  marked  with  many  white 
or  grayish,  flattened  or  depressed  spots,  bordered  by  a  ring  of  pur- 
ple; some  of  these  spots  may  be  one-third  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
This  disease  seldom  does  serious  injury  to  any  but  cap  varieties  of 
the  raspberry,  and  it  is  only  occasionally  noticed  to  any  extent  in 
this  state,  and  then  not  as  being  very  hurtful.  In  some  of  the 
eastern  states  it  is  so  abundant  as  to  almost  prohibit  the  growing 
of  cap  varieties. 

The  treatment  for  this  disease  consists  in  burning  all  the  in- 
fectpd  canes  and  in  applying  Bordeaux  mixture  to  the  new  growth 
occasionally  during  the  growing  season,  commencing  early. 

Insects. — The  rasberry  is  seriously  injured  by  but  few  insects. 
The  most  common  are  the  following : 

RASPBERRY  FLAT-HEADED  BORER  (Agrilus  ruficollis  )  Fig.  14, 
The  perfect  form  of  this  insect  is  a  beetle  which  lays  its  eggs  in  the 
growing  canes  some  time  during  the  summer.  Where  the  eggs  are 

laid  peculiar  gall-like 
swellings  may  occur 
(Fig.  15),  having  many 
rough  slits  in  them ;  but 
this  is  not  always  the 
case,  for  sometimes 
canes  may  be  killed  by 
the  insect  and  no  swell- 
ings at  all  appear  on 
the  canes.  The  eggs 
hatch  into  little  yellow- 
ish-white larvae,  having 
a  flattened  body,  brown 
jaws,  and  a  tail  fur- 
nished with  two  dark-brown  horns.  One  swelling  may  contain 
many  larvae.  When  full-grown  the  larvae  is  from  one-half  to  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  long,  and  by  burrowing  in  the  wood  frequently 
girdles  the  canes.  The  perfect  beetles  emerge  about  the  time  the 
plants  are  in  full  blossom.  They  have  a  brilliant  copper-colored 
head  and  thorax,  and  the  body  and  hard  wings  are  velvety  black. 
As  the  insects  winter  over  in  the  canes  they  may  be  destroyed 
by  cutting  and  burning  all  the  infested  wood  some  time  during  the 
winter. 

SNOWY  TREE  CRICKET  (Oecanthx*  nwems).  Fin.  W-  This  insect 
does  not  feed  on  the  raspberry  plant  in  any  way,  but  it  is  injurious 
on  account  of  its  peculiar  habit  of  puncturing:  the  canes  with  lines 
of  little  holes  in  which  to  deposit  eggs.  If  this  work  does  not  kill 


PIG.  14.— Raspberry  Cane-borer  A,  larra--. 
B,  mature  insect.  C,  Hunts  at  extremity 
of  abdomen  of  larvtv. 


24 


RASPBERRIES  AND   BLACKBEKKIES. 


the  canes  it  so  weakens  them  that  when  they  start  in  the  spring 
they  are  very  apt  to  break  off  as  soon  as  the  foliage  is  expanded. 
The  eggs,  which  are  laid  in  autumn,  are  yellow  and  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  long.  They  are  not  readily  seen  when  laid,  but 
by  the  latter  part  of  winter  the  infested  canes  take  on  an  unhealthy 
appearance  by  which  they  may  be  readily  located.  They  should 
then  be  cut  out  and  burned.  This  insect  feeds  on  leaf  lice  and  is 
thus  beneficial  to  some  extent,  but  it  causes  so  much  injury  by  lay- 
ing its  eggs  in  grape  and  other  p^nts  with  pithy  wood,  as  well  as 
the  raspberry,  that  it  should  be  destroyed  as  nearly  as  possible. 


FIG.  16. 


FIG.  15. 

FIG.  15  —Gall-like  swelling  resulting  from  work  of  raspberry  cane-borer. 

FIG.  16 — Snow  Tree  Crickft.  A.  Shows  its  method  of  work  in  the  canes; 
an  egg  enlarged  with  its  end  still  further  enlarged.  J5,  The  insect  that  does 
the  mischief, 

Varieties.— There  are  many  varieties  of  the  raspberry  offered 
by  various  nurserymen,  but  the  following  have  been  well  tested 
and  are  the  most  desirable,  yet  there  are  many  other  good  kinds. 
About  fifty  hills  of  raspberries  will  be  found  sufficient  for  the  ordi- 
nary family  garden,  and  it  will  be  most  satisfactory  to  have  them 


RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES.  25 

divided  so  as  to  give  one-half  of  red  and  the  other  of  the  black-cap 
Kinds. 

SUCKERING  KINDS.  Cnthbert—A.  strong  growing,  hardy,  pro- 
ductive kind,  having  large,  red  fruit  of  good  quality.  The  most 
popular  of  the  late  varieties. 

Marlboro — The  most  popular  early  red  berry  for  marketing ;  of 
fairly  vigorous  growth,  hardy,  and  very  productive.  The  fruit  is 
very  large,  bright-red  and  firm ;  however,  it  is  of  rather  inferior 
quality.  It  needs  the  highest  cultivation. 

Golden,  Queen— Like  the  Cuthbert,  but  of  a  yellow  color.  The 
best  yellow  fruited  kind. 

Turner — The  best  known  and  the  hardiest  of  the  red  kinds. 
Plant  of  strong,  vigorous,  healthy  growth,  and  very  productive. 
Fruit  sweet,  of  fair  size,  though  somewhat  soft.  Not  popular  for 
marketing.  Other  valuable  kinds  of  this  class  are  Hansell,  Clark 
and  Reliance. 

TIP-ROOTING  KINDS.  Schceffer'x  Colossal— Very  productive,  but 
its  dull  purple  color  makes  it  a  poor  kind  for  marketing.  Valuable 
for  the  home  garden  and  for  canning. 

Ohio — Not  as  early  as  the  Souhegan,  but  the  most  popular  of 
the  early  black-caps  for  general  planting. 

JVme&a— A  beautiful  large,  very  productive,  strong  growing 
kind,  of  medium  quality  and  latest  in  ripening.  It  is  now  the  most 
popular  late  black-cap  raspberry  wtih  those  who  are  acquainted 
with  it. 

Other  good  kinds  of  th:s  class  are  Souhegan,  Gregg,  Older  and 
Johnson's  Sweet.  There  are  no  good  yellow  varieties  belonging  to 
this  class. 


BLACKBERRIES. 


The  blackberry  is  nearly  allied— botanically— to  the  raspberry. 
There  are  two  species  of  it  cultivated,  and  both  of  them  are  natives 
of  Minnesota  and  other  northern  states.  » 

HIGH-BUSH  BLACKBERRY  (Rubu*  villosus).  To  this  species  be- 
long the  kinds  geaerally  cultivated.  The  fruit,  almost  without  ex- 
ception, is  black ;  but  there  are  varieties  with  whitish  or  red  fruit. 
This  specie  suckers  freely  and  may  be  readily  increased  by  root 
cuttings. 

LOW-BUSH  BLACKBERRY  OR  DEWBERRY  (Ritbu*  Canadensis) . 
The  fruit  of  this  resembles  the  above,  but  the  plant  is  vine-like  and 
trails  on  the  ground.  It  is  propagated  by  layering  the  growing 
<?anes,  which  take  root  very  readily.  Varieties  of  this  species  are 
not  generally  cultivated  with  much  success,  but  in  some  locations 
they  fruft  abundantly. 


26  RASPBERRIES   AND   BLACKBERRIES. 

The  blackberry  well  repays  careful  cultivation.  It  requires 
the  same  soil  and  methods  for  planting,  summer  pinching,  mulching 
and  winter  protection  as  the  red  raspberry.  It  should  always  be 
protected  in  winter.  In  the  spring, 
however,  the  plants  should  not  be 
pruned  until  the  flower  buds  can  be 
plainly  seen,  when,  if  in  too  great 
abundance,  a  part  of  the  canes  may 
be  pruned  enough  to  thin  the  fruit. 
(Fig.  17.)  Never  trim  blackberries 
until  the  flower  buds  can  be  seen, 
for  it  often  happens  that  the  flower 
buds  which  are  formed  the  year  pre- 
ceding that  when  fruit  is  produced 
are  near  the  ends  of  the  canes,  and 
in  pruning  all  of  them  are  cut  off. 
This  is  a  frequent  cause  of  failure 
with  blackberries.  FlCWi>7"  inched  B~ 

The  insects  and  diseases  affect-        &wyccme  grown  \ 
ing  the   blackberry  are   nearly    the         summer  pinching. 
same  as  those  injuring  the  raspberry,  and  are  subject  to  the  same 
remedies. 

Varieties.— There  are  only  a  few  varieties  of  special  interest 
to  planters  in  this  state.  About  twenty-five  hills  of  blackberries 
will  be  found  sufficient  to  supply  the  ordinary  family.  They  are  as 
follows : 

ANCIENT  BRITON. — This  is  probably  the  most  valuable  for  gen- 
eral planting  of  any  blackberry  grown.  The  plant  is  hardy, 
healthy  and  productive;  the  fruit  is  large,  sweet  and  of  fine 
quality.  The  variety  next  described  is  often  substituted  by  deal- 
ers for  this  variety. 

SNYDER.— In  some  sections,  generally  on  clayey  land,  this  vari- 
ety is  most  highly  esteemed.  It  is  very  early,  hardy,  productive, 
and  of  good  quality. 

Dewberries.— The  Lucretia  and  Windom  are  the  best  known 
varieties  of  dewberries.  They  seem  to  do  best  on  sandy  loam,  but 
while  some  growers  are  very  successful  with  them,  others  in  differ- 
ent locations,  who  appear  to  take  the  best  of  care  of  them,  fail  most 
completely.  Where  they  do  well  they  are  very  desirable,  as  they 
produce  their  fruit  earlier  in  the  season  than  the  tall  kinds.  As 
the  vines  lie  on  the  ground  they  should  be  heavily  mulched  at 
fruiting  time  to  protect  the  fruit  from  dirt,  as  well  as  the  roots 
from  dry  weather. 


CHAPTER    III. 


CURRANTS  AND  GOOSEBERRIES. 


E  currant  will  grow  and  fruit  abundantly  in  almost  any  soil 
or  situation  in  the  Northern  States  if  given  good  cultiva- 
tion; and  even  when  it  has  but  little  care  it  is  still  very  sure  to 
produce  a  fair  crop.  However,  no  cultivated  plant  responds  more 
promptly  and  generously  to  manuring  and  careful  attention.  The 
acid  fruit  in  any  of  the  various  ways  in  which  it  is  used  is  healthy 
and  refreshing.  It  is  not  so  universally  esteemed  as  the  straw- 
berry, yet  it  is  used  in  immense  quantities  each  year,  and  first-class 
fruit  carefully  marketed  generally  pays  the  grower  a  good  profit. 
No  fruit  is  more  satisfactory  in  the  home  garden.  A  currant  bush 
once  planted  will  continue  to  bear  fruit  for  an  indefinite  period, 
often  for  thirty  years.  There  are  very  many  species  of  currants, 
but  our  cultivated  kinds  belong  to  the  following: 

(1)  RED   CURRANT    (Ribex  rubrum).    Native  of  the  Northern 
States  and  Canada,  Northern  Europe  and   Asia.     The  European 
form  of  this  species  is  the  parent  of  all  the  red  and  white  varieties 
in  cultivation. 

(2)  BLACK   CURRANT   (JRibes   Negrurti).    A   vigorous,    growing 
plant;    native   of   Northern    Europe  and  Siberia.    The   fruit   is 
black  and  all  parts  of  the  plant  has  a  strong  peculiar  odor,  tvhich 
to  many  people  is  unpleasant  until  they  become  accustomed  to  it. 
The  fruit  is  grown  only  in  quite  a  limited  way.    In  many  markets 
there  is  no  demand  for  it,  while  in  others  it  brings  a  higher  price 
than  the  common  currant.    It  is  easily  grown.    Valued  medicinally 
for  throat  troubles. 

(3)  MISSOURI  OR  FLOWERING  CURRANT  (Ribes  Anreum).    A  vig- 
orous plant ;  native  of  Mississippi  Valley ;  having  beautiful,  sweet- 
scented  yellow  flowers  early  in  the  spring.    It  is  much  cultivated 
for  ornamental  purposes.    Fruit  large,  purplish  black  and  rather 
astringent.    A  few  varieties  of  this  species  have  recently  been  in- 
troduced as  fruit  plants,  but  none  of  them  have  proved  sufficiently 
valuable  to  warrant  their  extensive  cultivation. 

27 


CURRANTS   AND    GOOSEBERRIES. 


Propagation.— The  currant  does  not  come  true  from  seed. 
The  named  varieties  are  grown  from  layers,  cuttings,  or  divisions. 

SEEDLINGS  are  easily  raised  if  treated  the  same  as  recommend- 
ed for  raspberry  seedlings,  but  rather  more  care  must  be  taken 
with  its  seed  than  with  that  of  the  raspberry  as  it  germinates  very 
quickly  in  the  spring,  and  if  moved  after  growth  has  started  it 
often  fails  to  grow.  On  this  account  the  seed  should  be  sown  in 
the  fall  where  it  is  to  grow  the  following  year.  Or  if  sown  in 
boxes  they  should  be  frozen  until  February  or  March,  when  they 
may  be  put  in  a  greenhouse  or  hotbed.  But  very  few  seedlings  are 
of  any  value,  and  the  growing  of  them  is  seldom  attempted. 

CUTTINGS  are  very  easily  rooted  and  varieties  are  almost  uni- 
versally grown  from  them.  They  may  be  taken  off  at  almost  any 
time  while  the  plant  is  dormant,  and  wood  of  almost  any  age  or  size 
will  root  if  carefully  handled,  but  the  following  method  is  generally 
very  certain  to  bring  good  results : 

As  soon  as  the  leaves  have  fallen — which  may  be  in  the  latter 
part  of  August  or  first  of  September— the  young  wood  (growth 
of  the  current  season)  is  cut  into  pieces  about  seven  inches  long. 
They  are  then  at  once  set  out  in  rich,  well  drained 
soil  four  inches  apart,  in  rows  three  feet  apart. 
Only  about  one  inch  of  the  cutting  should  be  above 
ground,  and  great  care  should  be  taken  to  very 
firmly  pack  the  earth  around  the  bottom  of  the 
cuttings.  When  thus  treated  they  will  have  cal- 
loused and  made  som«  small  roots  (as  shown  in 
Fig.  18)  before  the  ground  freezes,  and  will  start 
vigorously  the  following  spring.  The  cuttings 
should  remain  as  planted  for  at  least  one,  or  per- 
haps two  years.  If  the  land  is  in  good  condition 
they  will  be  ready  to  set  out  when  one  year  old, 
but  can  remain  where  planted  for  several  seasons 
if  well  cultivated.  If  wood  is  scarce  the  cuttings 
may  be  shorter  than  recommended,  but  in  such  a 
case  more  care  will  be  required  to  ensure  that 
they  do  not  dry  out  in  the  soil.  Sometimes  the 
cuttings  may  consist  of  a  single  bud  each,  and 
may  be  sown  like  beans  in  a  furrow,  but  much  ex-  cu^in(j  pianted 
perience  is  required  to  be  successful  with  them  in  August  Khow- 
when  made  so  very  small.  inff  the  roots  ax 

LAYERS  may  be  made  at  any  time  during  the  the  'approach  °of 
growing  season,  but  preferably  in  the  spring  or  winter. 
early  summer,  as  they  will  then  be  well  rooted  by  autumn.  They 
consist  simply  of  branches  which  have  been  covered  with  earth 
and  have  become  rooted.  After  becoming  well  rooted  they  are 
separated  from  the  old  plant.  The  way  in  which  they  are  made  is 
shown  in  Fig.  19.  The  branches  are  rather  surer  to  root  if  the 
bark  and  wood  is  cut  or  broken  a  little,  or  if  treated  as  in  Fig.  20, 
but  most  varieties  root  very  easily  without  this  trouble.  The  cur- 


CURRANTS   A3D   GOOSEBERRIES  29 

rant  may  be  increased  by  dividing  the  old  bushes,  however  plants 
so  made  generally  have  but  few  very  hard  roots  and  are  slow  to 
start  into  vigorous  growth. 

Soil  and  Planting.— The  currant  will  grow  in  almost  any 
kind  of  land,  and  on  that  which  will  raise  a  fair  corn  crop  it  will 

give  good  returns,  but 
the  soil  cannot  be  too 
rich  or  the  cultivation 
too  constant  for  the 
best  crops  of  fruit. 
Plants  may  be  set  out 
in  the  fall  or  spring 
with  good  results.  If 
set  in  autumn  each 
plant  should  be  banked 
up  with  about  two 
spadesful  of  soil.  They 
should  be  put  live  or  six 
:^:.-.'^-  feet  apart  each  way, 

FIG  19.  and  for  the  varieties 

Currant  bush  with  six  of  its  stems  layered.  most  generally  grown 
six  is  better  than  five  feet.  One  plant  is  enough  for  a  hill,  and 
those  that  are  young  and  thrifty  are  better  than  older  ones.  Where 
practicable  they  should  be  planted  so  as  to  allow  of  cultivation  both 
ways.  They  should  not  be  set  along  a  fence  or  border,  as  in  such 
places  they  are  difficult  to  cultivate.  The  ^and  should  be  plowed 
lightly  with  a  one-horse  plow  early  in  the  spring,  and  the  cultivator 
started  soon  afterward.  While  the  plants  are  in  fruit,  cultivation 
will  have  to  be  suspended,  as  the  weight  of  the  berries  will  bend 
the  branches  so  that  they  will  be  in  the  way  and  liable  to  injury. 
As  soon  as  the  crop  is  gathered  the  working  of  the  land  should  be 
again  commenced  and  continued  until  the  middle  of  August,  after 
which  there  is  no  need  of  it. 

Mulching. — Good  crops  of  currants  may  be  grown  without 
cultivation  provided  the  land  is  heavily  mulched,  and  in  somewhat 
dry  locations  they  are  more  surely  grown  on  this  plan  than  on  any 
other.  The  mulch  may  consist  of  straw  litter,  coal  ashes,  hard 
wood  sawdust,  or  similar  material.  If  ashes  or  sawdust  is  used  it 
should  not  be  mixed  with  the  soil  but  kept  on  the  surface.  It  is 
often  a  good  plan  to  mulch  near  the  plants  and  cultivate  in  the 
center  of  the  rows.  Ashes  or  sawdust  used  for  this  purpose  will 
keep  down  the  weeds  near  the  plants  and  do  away  with  the  neces- 
sity of  hand  cultivating.  Pine  sawdust  is  not  as  good  for  this  pur- 
pose as  that  from  the  hard  woods,  but  may  be  safely  used  if  kept 
on  the  surface  of  the  land  and  not  mixed  with  it.  Partially  rotted 
sawdust  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  that  which  is  fresh. 

Pruning.— The  r-urrant  is  improved  by  some  pruning  eacl 
year.  This  may  be  done  at  almost  any  season,  but  preferably  ir 


30  CURRANTS   AND   GOOSEBERRIES. 

August.  To  do  this  work  properly  it  should  be  understood  that 
but  very  little  fruit  is  borne  on  the  wood  of  the  preceding  season's 
growth,  and  that  the  buds  which  produce  the  greatest  amount  of 
fruit  are  on  wood  in  its  third  season  of  growth  or  older.  The  fruit 
buds  are  formed  late  in  summer  and  open  early  in  the  following 
growing  season.  In  pruning,  the  old  wood  which  is  weakened  by 
age,  should  be  cut  out  close  to  the  ground  and  enough  new  sprouts 
from  the  roots  should  be  encouraged  to  take  its  place.  Not  more 
than  from  four  to  six  shoots  from  the  roots  should  be  allowed  to 
remain ;  the  rest  should  be  cut  away,  for  if  allowed  to  grow  too 
much  bearing  wood  will  be  produced  and  the  fruit  will  consequent- 
ly be  very  small.  The  wood  which  is  infested  by  borers  should 
also  be  cut  out  as  nearly  as  may  be.  But  for  the  past  few  years  in 
some  sections  of  Minnesota  ail  the  shoots  of  the  currant  have  bsen 
infested  with  this  insect.  In  such  extreme  cases  necessity  may 
compel  the  leaving  of  those  least  injured. 


FIG.  20.— Currant  /'///>•/•  *i»lit  before,   layering  to  en- 
courage  ,  he  formation  of  roots. 

Tree  Currants  are  frequently  advertised  as  being  very  desir- 
able and  are  often  sold  at  a  much  higher  price  than  commoner  cur- 
rants ;  while  in  fact  they  are  our  common  currants  pruned  so  as  to 
make  them  take  on  a  tree-like  form.  They  appear  very  pretty 
while  growing,  but  having  only  one  stem  the  first  borer  that  attacks 
it  destroys  the  plant.  To  make  plants  take  on  this  tree-form  all 
but  one  upper  bud  is  rubbed  off  the  cuttings  when  they  are  set  out. 
The  remaining  bud  pushes  up  a  straight  shoot,  which  is  allowed  to 
branch  at  about  a  foot  from  the  ground  and  to  make  a  miniature 
tree.  Such  plants  seldom  send  up  sprouts,  so  the  stem  cannot  be 
renewed.  The  common  red  currant  is  sometimes  grafted  on  the 
Ribes  aureum,  but  such  plants  are  open  to  the  same  objections  as 
other  tree  currants,  and  are  only  valuable  as  curiosities. 


CURRANTS   AND    GOOSEBERRIES. 


81 


Winter  Protection. — The  Red  Dutch  and  a  few  other  very 
excellent  varieties  are  perfectly  hardy  in  almost  any  soil  or  situa- 
tion, but  some  of  the  kinds  producing  the  largest  fruit  are  occasion- 
ally injured  in  severe  locations  in  winter.  They  may,  however,  be 
easily  protected  by  covering  them  with  earth,  but  if  so  treated 
they  will  need  to  be  mulched  or  to  have  some  support  to  keep  the 
fruit  off  the  ground,  as  the  canes  will  not  straighten  up  well  in  the 
spring  after  being  bent  down  all  winter.  Another  way  of  giving 
some  protection  is  to  tie  the  stems  together  in  autumn  with  a  string 
or  willow  withes.  This  is  very  desirable  where  the  snow  drifts 
over  the  plants,  as  it  prevents  their  being  broken  by  it  when  it 
settles  in  the  spring  and  more  protection  is  afforded  by  this  treat- 
ment than  is  generally  supposed. 

Marketing. — It  is  customary  to  market  the  currant  in  baskets 
holding  about  six  or  eight  pounds,  but  sometimes  quart  boxes  and 
other  packages  are  used  for  this  purpose.  One  must  study  the 
local  ma>  ket  to  learn  which  package  is  the  best  to  use.  This  fruit 
is  generally  sold  by  the  pound.  Unlike  the  raspberries  and  straw- 
berries it  will  remain  in  good  condition  on  the  plants  for  some  little 
time  after  getting  ripe,  but  it  does  not  ship  as  well  if  very  ripe  as 
when  it  is  a  little  green.  The  fruit  makes  the  firmest  jelly  before 
it  gets  fully  ripe,  and  on  this  account  it  is  sometimes  most  profit- 
able to  market  the  crop  when  the  berries  at  the  ends  of  the  bunches 
are  still  quite  green. 

Insects. — THE  CURRANT  WORM  (Nnnat-us  ventricosus)  is  the 
most  troublesome  insect  that  attacks  this  plant.  The  female  lays 

her  eggs  in  rows  on 
the  veins  on  the  un- 
der side  of  the 
leaves  (as  shown  in 
Pig.  21)  quite  early 
in  the  season.  They 
are  white  in  color 
and  about  one-twen- 
tieth of  an  inch  long. 
These  eggs  hatch  in 
about  ten  days.  The 
young  worms  feed 
in  companies,  at 
first  eating  small 
holes  in  the  leaves 
as  shown  at  A,  B 
and  G  in  Fig.  21,  but 
later  on  they  de- 
stroy all  the  green 
tissue  in  the  leaf 
FIG.  21.— A,  Eggs  of  currant  worm  on  Ike  vines  on  and  then  spread  in 
the  under 'side  of  the  leaf.  V  and  B.  Holes  _-.,  Hiiwtinn*  nvov 
made  by  the  young  worms  when  they  .first  com-  ali  directions  over 
mence  to  feed  shortly  after  coming  from  egg.  the  bush  eating  th 


32  CURRANTS   AND   GOOSEBERRIES. 

foliage.  They  will  frequently  strip  a  bush  of  its  leaves  in  a  few 
day's  time  if  left  to  themselves.  Figure  22  shows  the  worms  at 
work  in  the  latter  stage  of  their  growth.  When  full  grown  they 
are  three  quarters  of  an  inch  long.  There  are  two  broods  of  these 
worms ;  the  first  appearing  before  or  about  the  time  the  fruit  is 
ripe,  and  the  second  two  or  three  weeks  later.  The  mature  insect 
is  a  fly  somewhat  resembling  the  housefly  (Fig.  23). 

Remedy.— Powdered  hellebore  mixed  with  its  bulk  of  flour 
may  be  dusted  on  the  plants  when  the  foliage  is  wet,  or  it  may  be 
use^.  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  of  powdered  hellebore  to  a  gallon  of 
wa'^r  and  be  sprayed  on  the  foliage.  Used  in  either  way  it  is  a 
ver  v  cheap,  effective  and  easily  applied  remedy.  But  hellebore  is 


PIG.  22. — Currant  worms  (Nematus  ventncosus)  a'-  ivork  on  the  leaves. 

quite  poisonous  and  is  cot  safe  to  use  when  the  fruit  is  ripe, 
although  no  danger  will  exist  if  several  days  should  elapse  after 
the  application  before  the  fruit  is  gathered,  and  a  light  shower 
after  the  hellebore  is  applied  will  remove  all  danger  from  it.  Py- 
rethrum  insect  powder  is  a  good,  safe  and  effective  remedy  when 
applied  just  at  night,  but  it  is  very  expensive  and  difficult  to  obtain, 
of  a  good  quality,  at  any  price. 

Where  these  insects  nave  made  their  appearance  the  first  in- 
dication of  them  should  be  watched  for  in  following  years  and 
great  care  taken  to  destroy  ihe  first  brood  each  season.  Growers 


CURRANTS   AND   GOOSEBERRIES. 


3:3 


of  this  fruit  should  be  very  particular  not  to  neglect  the  bushes 
after  the  crop  is  gathered,  for  it  is  very  important  for  the  next 
year's  crop  that  they  should  make  a  good  growth  of  wood,  and 
neglecting  them  at  this  time  often  allows  a  crop  of  worms  to 
mature  to  cause  more  extensive  injury  the  following  year.  The 
flies  seem  to  prefer  the  foliage  of  native  varieties  of  goose-ber- 
ries, such  as  the  Houghton  seedling,  for  its  eggs,  and  a  few  of 

these  bushes  may  be  plant- 
ed among  the  currants, 
when  most  of  the  worms 
can  be  very  easily  de- 
stroyed on  them  as  soon  as 
the  eggs  hatch. 

Imported  Currant 
Borer  (Aegeria  tipuliform- 
is) .  Fig.  24.  In  many  sec- 
tions this  insect  in  its  lar- 
val state  causes  great  in- 
jury to  the  stems  of  the 
currant  and  gooseberry  by 
so  weakening  them  that 
they  break  off  when  loaded 
with  fruit,  and  by  making 
them  sickly.  The  female 
lays  her  eggs  in  the  stems  ' 
early  in  the  summer.  In 
a  few  days  the  eggs  hatch 
into  little  white  grubs, 
which  work  into  the  pith 
of  the  stem  where  they 
make  their  burrows  and 
FIG.  23.— Mature  form  of  the  Currant  Worm,  live  until  the  following 
A,  male.  B,  female.  ^^  They  then  finish 

their  transformation  and  appear  as  wasp-like  moths  and  the  fe- 
males shortly  commence  to  lay  eggs.  This  insect  infests  chiefly 
the  red  and  white  currant,  but  it  also  attacks  the  black  currant 
and  occasionally  the  gooseberry 

Remedies.— The  infested  stems  should  be  cut  out  in  the  au- 
tumn or  very  early  in  the  spring  and  be  burned  at  once.  If  the 
growers  in  any  vicinity  will  follow  th.s  method  in  united  effort 
they  can  keep  this  insect  in  subjection.  However,  it  is  quite 
certain  this  pest  will  not  continue  for  many  years  so  very  abundant 
as  it  is  now,  but  that  following  the  natural  course  of  events  it  will 
be  checked  by  parasites  or  some  disease,  and  we  may  then  enjoy  a 
period  of  comparative  immunity  from  it  for  a  series  of  years. 

Lice  (Aphis  ribis)  are  frequently  very  abundant  on  the  foliage 
of  currants  and  gooseberries,  where  they  cause  the  leaves  to  curl 
up  and  become  distorted  thus  checking  their  growth,  but  sel- 
dom causing  serious  injury.  They  may  be  destroyed  by  spray- 


34 


CURRANTS   AND   GOOSEBERRIES. 


ing  the  foliage  with  tobacco  water  made  by  steeping  the  raw  leaf 
or  stems  in  hot  water  until  it  is  the  color  of  strong  tea.  Kerosene 
emulsion  is  also  a  very  excellent  remedy.  It  may  be  made  as  fol- 
lows :  Soft  soap,  one  quart ;  hard  soap  (preferably  whale-oil  soap) 
one-fourth  pound ;  two  quarts  hot  water,  and  one  pint  kerosene. 
Stir  thoroughly  until  all  are  permanently  mixed,  then  add  two 
quarts  more  of  water.  A  force  pump  will  be  found  the  best  thing 
to  mix  it  with,  and  the  mixture  should  be  forced  through  the  pump 
back  into  the  receptacle  containing  it  many  times  in  order  to  make 
it  permanent.  In  using  this  mixture  its  strength  may  have  to  be 
varied  a  little  to  suit  the  plant  or  the  aphis.  In  fighting  these  in- 
sects it  is  very  important  to  commence  as  soon  as  the  first  are  seen, 
as  they  often  increase  with 
great  rapidity.  On  account  of 
the  position  of  the  leaves  these 
lice  are  very  difficult  to  get  at 
with  a  spray,  and  on  their 
first  appearance  the  infested 
foliage  should  be  destroyed. 
It  is  sometimes  most  practi- 
cable to  dip  the  branches  into 
the  emulsion. 

Diseases. — There  are  sev- 
eral fungi  that  attack  the  fol- 
,iage  of  the  currant.    Perhaps 
the  most  common  is  the  rust 
(tieptosia  Ribex),  which  causes 
the  leaves  to  fall  prematurely 
in  July  or  August.    The  Bor- 
deaux mixture  mentioned  un- 
der the  head  of  the  strawber- 
ry is  probably  the  best  pre- 
ventive, but  should    be    used 
quite  early  in  the  spring  and  FIG.  24.— Currant  Sorer  (Aegeria  tipuli- 
again  after  the  crop  Is  gath-       £•%,*  SftgPg?  $£%& 
ered.     If  used  just  before  the        open  to  show  caterpillar  inside  and 
fruit  is  ripe  it  will  badly  dis-        an  empty  pupa  skin  above. 
figure  it. 

Varieties.— There  are  not  so  many  varieties  of  the  currant 
offered  in  the  nursery  catalogues  as  of  most  other  cultivated  fruits, 
but  still  there  is  much  difference  in  the  size  and  quality  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds,  as  well  as  in  the  hardiness  and  vigor  of  the  plants 
For  the  home  garden  about  one  dozen  plants  well  cared  for  will 
give  an  abundance  of  fruit.  The  following  are  the  most  important 
kinds: 

RED  DUTCH. — The  variety  most  commonly  cultivated  and  the 
most  productive,  hardiest  and  best  kind  known  for  general  plant- 
ing. Fruit  bright  red,  small  to  medium  in  size  and  in  good  bunch- 
es. It  will  hang  on  the  bush  a  long  time  after  getting  ripe  without 


CURRANTS  AND   GOOSEBERRIES.  35 

being  seriously  injured.  The  fruit  seldom  brings  the  highest  price 
on  account  of  its  rather  small  size,  but  if  severely  pruned  and  high- 
ly manured  it  is  greatly  improved  in  this  respect. 

VICTORIA.— One  of  the  latest  varieties  in  time  of  ripening. 
Very  satisfactory  in  every  way  and  especially  valuable  for  market- 
ing. Fruit  red,  of  large  size  in  large  bunches,  and  it  hangs  on  the 
bush  well  after  getting  ripe. 

FAY'S  PROLIFIC.— Plant  of  moderately  spreading  growth.  Ber- 
ries dark  red,  very  large  and  borne  in  large  bunches.  It  brings  the 
highest  price,  but  the  plant  is  somewhat  tender  and  liable  to  have 
its  fruit  buds  injured  in  severe  winters  if  exposed ;  on  this  account 
it  should  be  protected,  except  in  favorable  locations. 

LONG  BUNCH  HOLLAND. — A  very  popular  market  currant.  Ber- 
ries red  in  color,  in  long  bunches.  Rather  more  liable  to  drop  its 
fruit  as  soon  as  it  is  ripe  than  is  the  case  with  the  Victoria  or  Red 
Dutch. 

CHERRY  AND  VERSAILLES. — Nearly  identical  large  red-fruited 
varieties.  They  are  not  as  hardy  as  the  two  kinds  first  mentioned, 
but  do  well  in  favorable  locations. 

WHITE  GRAPE  is  the  best  of  the  white  varieties  and  is  sweeter 
and  more  desirable  for  table  use  than  any  before  mentioned.  It  is 
prolific  and  very  satisfactory  in  the  home  garden.  But  white  cur- 
rants seldom  bring  as  good  a  price  in  the  markets  as  the  red  kinds. 


GOOSEBERRY. 

The  gooseberry  is  closely  related  to  the  currant,  but  is  not  so 
generally  esteemed.  There  are  many  species,  but  the  varieties  in 
cultivation  are  generally  included  under  two  species,  yet  a  third 
may  enter  into  the  parentage  of  a  few  of  them. 

(1)  Kibes  hirtellum.  Native  of  the  Northern  States  and  Canada. 
Our  best  wild  gooseberries  belong  here,  and  such  well  known  kinds 
as  Houghton  Seedling,  Downing  and  Smith  are  improved  selections 
of  it,  little  removed  from  the  better  representatives  of  the  type 
in  its  wild  state.     Varieties  belonging  to  this  class  are  very  hardy 
and  generally  most  desirable. 

(2)  Ribes  grossulacece.      The  European  gooseberry  in  its    wild 
state  is  not  nearly  so  fine  a  fruit  as  the  native  American  species, 
but  by  painstaking  care  many  kinds  having  large  berries  and  often 
of  luscious  quality  have  been  developed,  until  in  England  it  is  re- 
garded a  fine  table  fruit.    Varieties  belonging  to  this  species  are 
poorly  adapted  to  the  dry  climate  of  this  section,  and  are  prone  to 
mildew  and  sunscald.    Quite  recently  some  very  interesting  hy- 
brids between  the  two  species  have  been  brought  out  which  pro- 
duce very  large  fruit  and  yet  appear  adapted  to  our  severe  climatic 
conditions. 

The  directions  given  for  growing  the  currant  apply  with  equal 
force  to  the  gooseberry,  except  in  a  few  particulars  which  are  in- 
cluded under  the  following  heads : 


36  CURRANTS  AND   GOOSEBERRIES. 

Propagation.— Most  varieties  do  not  grow  as  readily  from 
cuttings  as  the  currant,  and  kinds  with  coarse  wood  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  root  in  this  way.  For  this  reason  layering  is  the 
most  common  method  of  propagation.  If  the  layers  are  carefully 
put  down  in  June  after  the  new  growth  is  several  inches  long  each 
twig  will  be  found  slightly  rooted  by  autumn.  They  should  then 
be  taken  up,  cut  apart  with  a  piece  of  the  rooted  main  branch  with 
each  twig.  These  little  layers  should  be  set  out  at  once  in  the 
spring  and  treated  the  same  as  recommended  for  currant  cuttings. 
Some  varieties  need  to  have  the  bark  slightly  broken  when  they 
are  laid  down,  but  most  kinds  root  readily  without  this  trouble. 

Planting. — Autumn  is  the  time  usually  preferred  for  setting 
the  gooseberry.  The  sprouts  start  into  growth  so  very  early  in  the 
spring  that  any  delay  at  that  time  causes  them  a  set-back  from 
which  they  may  not  readily  recover.  But  plants  may  be  very  suc- 
cessfully set  in  the  spring  if  planted  early. 

Pruning  should  consist  in  taking  out  any  superfluous  or  weak 
stems,  as  recommended  for  currants.  Besides  this,  the  size  and  ap- 
pearance of  the  fruit  of  the  common  kinds  will  be  greatly  improved 
if  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  new  growth  is  cut  off  annually. 
However,  some  of  the  newer  kinds-  producing  the  largest  fruit  may 
need  this  recommendation  somewhat  modified.  Large  fruit  is 
picked  and  sold  most  readily  and  the  quantity  produced  from  a 
trimmed  bush  is,  as  a  rule,  fully  as  much  as  from  one  not  trimmed. 
This  is  especially  true  of  our  native  kinds  which  are  inclined  to 
overbear. 

Mildew  (Sphaerotheca  Mors-ievae)  is  the  worst  disease  of  the 
gooseberry.  It  attacks  the  foliage  which  becomes  covered  with  a 
whitish  mould.  Later  the  leaves  dry  up  and  drop  off  and  the  wood 
fails  to  mature.  In  bad  cases  the  berries  too  are  discolored,  and 
perhaps  ruined.  As  a  rule  this  disease  does  not  cause  serious  in- 
jury in  good  locations  in  this  section,  but  in  wet  seasons,  or  any 
season  on  wet  land,  or  where  there  is  a  poor  circulation  of  air,  it 
may  be  very  destructive  even  here. 

Remedies.— These  should  be  preventive  largely,  and  consist 
of  allowing  plenty  of  room  between  the  plants  for  a  good  circula- 
tion of  air  and  keeping  them  in  as  vigorous  a  state  of  health  as 
possible  by  manuring  and  cultivating.  If  the  disease  makes  its 
appearance  in  the  face  of  these  precautions  recourse  should  be  had 
to  the  following  remedy,  which  is  very  satisfactory : 

Spray  the  plants  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  young  leaves 
begin  to  unfold,  and  repeat  it  as  often  as  once  in  eighteen  or  twenty 
days,  except  in  times  of  heavy  rains  when  it  must  be  done  oftener. 
For  this  purpose  use  liver  of  sulphur  (pota-^mm  sulphide)  dissolved 
in  water  at  the  rate  of  one-half  ounce  to  the  gallon.  The  liver  of 
sulphur  dissolves  very  readily  in  hot  water;  costs  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  cents  per  pound,  and  one  gallon  of  the  solution  is  enough 


CURRANTS   AND   GOOSEBERRIES.  37 

for  tea  or  twelve  large  bushes  if  applied  with  a  spray  pump,  but  if 
sprinkled  on  the  foliage  much  more  of  the  solution  will  be  required. 

Varieties.— The  American  kinds  are  best  for  general  planting. 
Those  most  commonly  offered  by  nurserymen  are  as  follows: 

HOUQHTON  SEEDLING  is  the  hardiest  and  most  satisfactory  of 
the  gooseberries  for  this  section.  It  is  prolific  with  little  care  in 
almost  any  situation.  If  neglected  the  fruit  will  be  small,  but  it 
responds  readily  to  good  cultivation.  Berries  reddish  brown  in 
color  when  ripe. 

DOWNING  has  larger  and  sweeter  fruit  than  the  Houghton,  but 
the  bush  is  not  so  hardy.  If  laid  down  and  covered  with  earth  in 
winter  it  is  a  sure  cropper,  but  otherwise  it  is  liable  to  lose  its  fruit 
buds  in  this  section.  Berries  pale-green  when  ripe. 

SMITH'S  IMPROVED  is  a  productive  variety  of  good  quality. 
Berries  larger  in  size  than  the  Houghton  and  yellowish  green  in 
color. 

None  of  the  European  or  their  hybrids  have  proven  a  great 
success  in  this  state.  They  generally  mildew  badly  or  sunscald, 
and  require  much  care.  The  best  of  this  class  are  the  Industry 
and  Triumph.  The  latter  is  a  new  kind  of  more  than  usual 
promise. 


CHAPTER    IV. 


THE    GRAPE. 


•TjjtHERE  is  probably  no  large  section  of  Minnesota,  or  other 
Hj£  regions  east  and  west  on  the  same  latitude,  where  some  of  the 
hardiest  kinds  of  grapes  cannot  be  grown  and  ripened,  while  on  the 
latitude  of  the  southern  half  of  the  state,  and  on  the  highlands  near 
rivers  and  lakes  many  of  the  best  varieties  are  easily  grown  in 
large  quantities.  Our  popular  cultivated  grapes  are  almost  with- 
out exception  the  result  of  the  selection  and  hybridization  of  native 
species.  In  a  few  varieties  we  find  a  little  of  the  European  wine 
grape,  but  they  are  not  generally  as  vigorous  and  free  from  dis- 
eases as  the  former.  There  are  many  native  species  in  the  United 
States,  but  those  which  enter  largely  into  the  parentage  of  the 
kinds  most  valuable  at  the  north  are: — 

(1)  Northern  Pox  Grape  (Vitis  lahrusca),  the  species  from 
which  almost  all  of  our  popular  varieties  have  sprung.    Examples 
of  these  are  Concord,  Worden,  Moore's  Early  and  Lady.    As  usu- 
ally found  it  has  a  large  purple  fruit,  thick  skin,  and  very  pulpy 
meat  surrounding  the  large   seeds.     The  leaves  are  large,  with 
whitish  down  on  the  underside.    Found  occasionally  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  Minnesota,  and  very  abundantly  in  states  farther  east. 
The  Concord  grape  resulted  from  the  selection  of  seed  from  a  wild 
vine  which  had  been  cultivated  for  two  generations.    Seedling 
labrmca  are  frequently  white  in  color.     The  cultivated  grapes  of 
this  class  have  perfect  flowers  with  well  developed  stamens. 

(2)  Winter,   or   Frost   Grape  (Vitis  riparia),    the  common 
wild  grape  found  throughout  Minnesota,  except  north  of  Lake 
Superior;  as  yet  not  much  cultivated,  but  it  is  probable  that  some 
of  its  hybrids  will  prove  valuable  for  severe  locations  in  the  North- 
west. 

(3)  European  Wine  Grape  (Vitis  vinifera).    In  its  pure  state 
this  has  never  been  a  success  in  open  air  culture  in  the  Northern 
States,  but  the  fine  quality  of  its  fruit  has  greatly  improved  the 
hybrids  into  which  it  has  entered.    The  so-called  Roger's  hybrids, 


THE  GRAPE.  O» 

the  Brighton,  Delaware  and  others  are  the  product  of  the  union  of 
V.  vinifera  with  V.  labrusca,  and  as  a  result  we  have  among  them 
varieties  of  the  finest  quality,  though  almost  without  exception 
they  exhibit  some  weakness  in  foliage  or  root,  and  a  predisposition 
to  disease  not  found  in  those  of  pure  labrusca  origin. 

These  species  of  the  grape  readily  hybridize  together.  The 
blossoms  of  the  cultivated  kinds  of  grapes  are  generally  perfect,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  26.  This  is  especially  true  of  varieties  of  pure  fox- 


PIG.  25.  FIG.  26.  FIG.  27. 

FTG.  25.— Shows  the  way  in  which  the  stamens  push  off  the  covering  of  the 

flower.     The  petals  separating  at  the.  lower  edge. 
FIG.  26.—  A  perject  flower  withered  (full  developed)  stamens. 
FIG.  27. — A  flower  withrejlex  (weak)  stamens. 

grape  ( V.  labrusca)  origin ;  while  hybrids  having  some  of  the  Euro- 
pean wine  grape  (V.  vinifera)  in  their  parentage  often  have  flowers 
which  are  deficient  in  pollen.  The  latter  have  their  stamens  some- 
what crooked  and  are  said  to  be  reflexed  (Fig.  27).  They  frequent- 
ly do  not  produce  enough  pollen  to  fertilize  their  own  flowers,  and 
when  grown  alone  the  bunches  of  fruit  on  them  are  perhaps  only 
partially  filled  out,  having  many  small,  seedless  berries.  This  fea- 
ture is  characteristic  of  the  Lindley,  Brighton  and  others,  and 
varities  with  this  weakness  in  their  flowers  should  be  grown  near 
such  kinds  as  the  Concord,  Worden,  etc.,  which  produce  an  abund- 
ance of  pollen. 

Propagation. — The  grape  is  increased  from  cuttings  and  lay- 
ers, and,  to  a  very  limited  extent  in  this  country,  by  grafting.  Pro- 
pagation from  seed  is  resorted  to  only  when  new  varieties  are 
desired. 

BY  SEED.— If  vines  are  to  be  grown  in  this  way  the  seed  should 
be  saved  from  ripe  berries.  It  should  be  at  once  sown  in  boxes  of 
rich  soil,  or  in  a  fine  seed-bed,  covering  it  a  half  inch  deep  and  pro- 
tecting by  a  mulch  in  winter.  The  plants  will  make  a  growth  of 
one  or  two  feet  the  first  season,  and  will  show  blossoms  about  the 
fourth  year.  Some  will  have  perfect  and  some  staminate  flowers, 
while  others  will  have  flowers  with  reflexed  stamens ;  not  one  seed- 
ling in  a  thousand  will  be  worth  anything  for  fruit.  The  chances 
for  obtaining  good  kinds  will  be  much  increased  if  careful,  intelli- 
gent hybridization  is  resorted  to. 

BY  CUTTINGS.— Grape  cuttings  are  of  three  kinds— long  and 
short,  hard  wood  and  soft  wood.  The  process  by  which  they  are 


40  THE   GRAPE. 

rooted  varies  greatly  in  its  details,  but  the  general  principles  are 
the  same  in  every  case. 

Long  Hard-wood  Cuttings.— These  should  be  made  in  the  fall 
from  the  hard,  well-ripened  new  wood  of  the  season.  It  is  best  to 
make  them  about  eight  inches  long,  if  wood  is  abundant.  The 
length  will  necessarily  depend  somewhat  on  the  distance  between 
the  buds  on  the  canes,  and  when  three-bud  cuttings  are  made  of 
some  varieties  they  may  be  ten  inches  long.  They  are  often  made 
six  inches  long,  but  so  short  as  this  they  are  more  liable  to  fail 
from  drying  out  than  if  longer.  They  will  send  out  roots  best  if 
cut  just  below  a  bud,  but  this  is  cot  necessary.  These  cuttings 
should  be  put  up  in  bundles  of  about  one  hundred  each.  Bury 
them  in  some  well  drained  place  with  the  tops  down,  and  cover 
with  about  six  inches  of  soil  and  a  foot  or  two  of  mulch.  Be  sure 
the  soil  is  packed  firmly  around  and  between  the  bundles,  so  that 
they  cannot  dry  out  in  winter.  In  the  spring,  when  the  ground  is 
dry,  take  all  but  about  three  inches  of  the  soil  from  over  the  cut- 
tings and  replace  it  with  about  one  foot  of  hot  stable  manure,  to 
induce  the  cuttings  to  callous.  This  is  very  necessary,  to  insure 
their  rooting,  and  they  should  not  be  planted  out  until  well  cal- 
loused. The  same  object  may  be  secured  by  covering  the  cuttings 
with  a  box  and  sash,  which  will  confine  the  sun's  rays  and  so  warm 
the  roots  tnat  they  will  start  a  callous.  When  the  soil  is  settled 
and  warm  they  should  be  planted  out,  six  inches  apart,  in  rows  two 
or  three  feet  apart,  putting  the  cuttings  down  to  the  top  bud.  They 
should  be  at  least  seven  inches  deep  in  most  locations. 

THE  LAND  FOR  CUTTINGS.— The  land  selected  for  growing  cut- 
tings should  be  warm,  light  and  rich.  Its  condition  will  be  greatly 
improved  if  it  is  warmed  by  being  plowed  several  times  and  having 
a  coat  of  fine,  warm  manure  turned  in  before  planting.  When 
planting  on  a  large  scale  the  land  may  be  marked  off  with  a  line, 
and  a  sub-soil  plow,  run  eight  inches  deep  in  the  mark  to  loosen  the 
soil,  after  which  the  cuttings  ean  easily  be  set  by  hand.  The  rows 
should  next  be  straightened  with  a  line,  and  each  cutting  carefully 
firmed  by  pressing  close  to  each  side  of  each  cutting  with  the  ball 
of  the  foot.  When  this  work  is  well  done  the  cuttings  will  be  in 
the  ground  so  solid  that  they  cannot  easily  be  pulled  out  with  the 
fingers.  The  after-cultivation  consists  in  continually  working  the 
top  soil  and  keeping  it  loose  and  open.  In  the  fall,  if  the  plants  are 
weak,  they  may  be  covered  with  earth  and  left  where  they  are  for 
another  season's  growth ;  but  if  strong,  they  may  be  dug  and  used 
for  vineyard  planting  the  following  spring.  It  is  customary  to  dig 
all  the  vines  late  in  the  fall,  carefully  sort  them  and  heel  them  in 
out  doors  for  winter,  or  else  put  them  in  a  cold  cellar.  In  the 
spring  the  strong  vines  may  be  used  in  the  vineyard  and  the  weak- 
er ones  be  set  out  in  the  nursery  to  grow  another  year. 

ONE-EYE  CUTTINGS. — The  wood  for  these  should  be  cut  in  the 
fall  and  wintered  over  in  a  cold  cellar,  buried  in  moss,  sand,  saw- 
dust, or  other  similar  material,  or  it  may  be  buried  out  doors.  In 


THE  GRAPE.  41 

the  spring,  generally  in  March,  these  canes  should  be  cut  up  into 
pieces  having  one  inch  of  wood  be.ow  and  half  an  inch  above  the 
bud.  Boxes  about  the  size  of  an  ordinary  soap  box,  but  only  four 
inches  deep,  and  having  holes  for  drainage,  should  be  prepared  by 
putting  in  one  and  a  half  inches  of  rich  soil  and  then  about  the 
same  amount  of  clean  ?and  on  top  of  it.  Ttie  cuttings  should  be 
set  deep  enough  in  the  sand  to  just  cover  the  bud,  putting  them 
two  inches  apart  each  way.  The  boxes  may  now  be  put  in  a  gentle 
hot-bed,  or  on  a  bench  in  a  greenhouse,  and  kept  moist.  The  cut- 
tings should  be  rooted  in  about  six  weeks.  When  they  have  made 
a  good  root  srowth  they  should  be  planted  at  a  favorable  time  in 
rich  soil  out-doors.  The  time  for  this  will  be  as  late  as  the  latter 
part  of  May  in  this  section.  Very  nice  plants  may  be  grown  in 
this  way,  but  they  do  not  make  as  strong  a  growth  the  first  year  as 
long  cuttings,  and  often  need  a  second  year  in  the  nursery  before 
they  are  large  enough  for  transplanting  to  the  vineyard. 

SOFT-WOOD  CUTTINGS.— These  are  made  from  the  green  wood 
taken  off  while  the  plant  is  growing.  They  are  rooted  in  sand  in 
much  the  same  way  that  florists  root  cuttings  of  geraniums, 
fuschias,  etc.  It  is  a  method  used  only  where  wood  is  very  val- 
uable, and  as  a  means  to  increase  new  varieties.  Plants  grown 
this  way  are  apt  to  start  slowly  and  to  be  weak  until  well  started, 
and  should  not  be  used  when  those  grown  from  hard-wood  can  be 
obtained. 

Layering. — This  is  the  simplest,  surest  and  easiest  method  of 
increasing  the  grape,  and  is  the  best  way  to  grow  them  where  but 
few  vines  are  wanted.  There  are  two  kinds  of  layers,  which  are 
called  spring  and  summer  layers,  from  the  season  at  which  they 
are  made. 

SUMMER  LAYERS  are  made  in  the  summer,  generally  the  last  of 
July,  from  a  branch  of  the  same  season's  growth.  They  are  likely 
to  be  weak  for  several  years,  and  do  not  make  as  good  plants  as  the 
spring  layers.  In  making  them  the  wood  should  be  slit  for  an  inch 
or  so  near  the  buds  that  are  covered.  Bury  about  one  foot  of  the 
cane  four  inches  deep  in  the  ground  and  it  will  be  rooted  by  late 
autumn,  when  it  may  be  treated  as  recommended  for  weak  year- 
ling vines  grown  from  hard-wood  cuttings. 

Spring  Layers. — These  may  be  made  by  laying  down  any 
«ane  early  in  the  spring.  It  will  root  in  one  season.  By  fall  it  will 
have  made  a  good  growth  of  roots,  when  it  may  be  cut  from  the 
main  cane,  and  if  s'rong  it  may  be  divided  into  two  plants.  This 
form  of  layer  is  illustrated  in  figures  28  and  29.  By  a  little  dif- 
ferent treatment  of  the  spring  layer  a  vine  may  be  grown  from 
each  bud  on  the  layered  cane.  For  this  purpose  some  thrifty  cane 
should  be  selected  in  autumn,  pruned  of  its  laterals  and  buried. 
In  the  spring  it  should  be  uncovered  and  only  one  shoot  permitted 
to  grow  from  each  joint.  After  the  new  growth  has  started  about 
six  inches  from  each  bud  the  whole  cane  should  be  layered  about 
four  inches  deep,  handling  it  carefully  so  as  not  to  break  the  new 


THE   GRAPE. 


growth.  Figure  30  shows  such  a  layer  after  it  has  rooted.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  cover  it  not  more  than  three  inches  at  first  and  to  fill 
up  the  trench  as  the  shoots  grow.  If  covered  four  inches  deep  at 
once  the  young  growth  will  sometimes  rot,  though  this  seldom  hap- 
pens, and  some  skillful  growers  fill  the  trench  full  at  once.  In  the 
autumn  roots  will  be  found  growing  from  each  joint,  and  these 
may  be  cut  apart  and  treated  as  recommended  for  weak  vines 
grown  from  cuttings.  If  this  method  of  propagation  is  to  be  used 
to  some  considerable  extent  vines  should  be  grown  specially  for  the 
purpose.  It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  use  fruiting  vines  for  layering  to 
any  great  extent,  though  it  may  be  safely  done  in  a  small  way. 
The  subject  of  grafting  the  grape  will  be  considered*  later  in  a 
special  chapter  on  grafting  and  budding. 

Location  of  the  Vineyard.— Some  of  the  hardy,  early  rip- 
ening but  inferior  grapes  will  mature  in  almost  any  situation,  but 

the  better  kinds  need  a 
warm  exposure  and  free 
circulation  of  the  air  about 
them  to  insure  their  ripen- 
ing each  year.  High  south- 
ern slopes  generally  offer 
the  best  locations ;  in  such 
places  there  is  the  greatest 
amount  of  heat  in  summer, 
very  general  immunity 
from  the  late  frosts  of 
spring  or  the  early  frosts  of  autumn,  and  a  movement  of  the  air  at 
all  times;  all  of  which  are  important  matters  in  growing  grapes. 
Other  slopes,  and  even  level  land,  may  be  successfully  used  for 
this  purpose,  but  on  northern  exposure  the  fruit  will  be  later  in 
ripening  than  if  in  situa- 
tions where  the  plants  re- 
ceive the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun.  However,  excellent 
fruit  may  often  be  grown 
on  a  northern  slope  if  it  is 
near  some  large  body  of 
water,  which  will  help 
maintain  an  equable  tem- 
perature, and  especially  to  FIG.  29.— The  rooted  layer  separated,  mak 
keep  off  the  early  frosts  of  ing  two  plants 

autumn.  In  a  vineyard  closely  shut  in  so  that  the  foliage  of  the 
vines  does  not  dry  off  quickly  after  summer  showers  it  will  be 
found  very  difficult  to  grow  many  of  our  better  kinds  of  grapes,  on 
account  of  the  prevalence  of  fungus  diseases  in  such  places.  Trie 
cutting  away  of  a  belt  of  trees  surrounding  a  vineyard,  so  as  to 
allow  a  free  movement  of  air  through  the  vines  at  all  times,  has 
often  been  the  means  of  making  the  difference  between  failure  and 
success  in  growing  grapes. 


FIG.  28.— .4  Hooted  Layer. 


THE   GRAPF,.  43 

Soil.— The  best  soil  for  a  vineyard  is  a  rich  gravelly  or  sandy 
loam,  with  an  open  clay  sub-soil ;  but  a  somewhat  clayey  loam  will 
do  very  well  if  sufficiently  drained  to  remove  any  excess  of  mois- 
ture. Before  planting  the  land  should  be  thoroughly  prepared  by 
plowing  and  harrowing  until  in  the  best  condition.  Where  there  is 
not  good  surface  drainage,  as  on  some  prairie  farms,  it  will  be 
found  a  good  plan  to  plant  the  vines  on  ridges  made  by  turning  six 
furrows  back  to  back.  In  other  locations  the  land  should  be  kept 
smooth. 

The  Best  Vines  for  planting  are  strong  one-year  or  thrifty 
two-year-old  plants  from  layers  or  cuttings,  and  only  those  having 
a  good  root  system  should  be  used.  Plants  more  than  three  years 
old  are  not  desirable,  as  young,  thrifty  plants  soon  outgrow  those 
that  are  old  and  large  when  transplanted.  It  matters  little  about 
the  direction  of  the  rows,  they  should  be  laid  out  so  as  to  prevent 
the  wash  as  much  as  possible. 


FIG.  30. — A  rooted  layer.    Each  bud  making  a  new  plant. 

The  Distance  Between  the  Plants  will  depend  somewhat 
on  the  kinds  planted,  the  manner  of  pruning  and  the  soil;  but  the 
strong  growing  varieties,  which  are  most  desirable,  should  gener- 
ally be  set  ten  by  ten  feet  apart  each  way,  to  allow  for  the  growth 
of  roots  and  a  good  circulation  of  air  between  the  vines.  "When 
the  vineyard  is  much  shut  in  it  will  be  found  advantageous  to  in- 
crease this  distance,  but  when  located  in  an  airy  position  and  on 
retentive  soil  the  plants  may  be  set  eight  by  eight  feet. 

Planting. — The  most  rapid  way  of  planting  is  to  furrow  out 
the  land  both  ways  and  put  the  vines  at  the  intersection  of  the  fur- 
rows. Before  planting  the  tops  of  the  vines  should  be  cut  off  so  as 
to  leave  only  two  or  three  buds,  and  if  the  roots  are  very  long  it 
will  facilitate  planting  to  cut  them  back  to  eight  or  ten  inches  in 
length ;  shortening  the  roots  to  this  extent  does  not  seem  to  injure 
the  growth  of  the  plant.  On  light  soil  it  is  exceedingly  important 
to  get  the  roots  down  deep  in  the  land,  and  the  holes  should  be 
made  large  enough  to  allow  the  lower  roots  to  come  about  fifteen 
inches  below  the  surface.  The  top  loam  should  be  put  around  the 
roots,  but  the  plants  should  not  be  covered  at  once  more  than  two 
inches  deeper  than  they  grew  in  the  nursery.  The  soil  should  be 


44  THE  GRAPE. 

gradually  worked  in  around  the  vines  as  they  grow  until  the  holes 
are  full.  On  heavy  soils,  especially  those  quite  moist,  it  is  not  safe 
to  plant  deep,  and  eight  inches  will  probably  be  found  about  the 
right  depth  in  most  locations.  In  planting  vines  to  be  pruned  on 
the  one-cane  system,  which  is  generally  practiced  by  grape  growers 
in  this  region,  it  is  best  to  incline  them  somewhat  in  the  direction 
in  which  they  are  to  be  trained  on  the  trellises,  this  should  be  in 
the  direction  of  the  prevailing  summer  winds. 

Cultivation.— Soon  aft^r  planting  the  vines  should  be  well 
cultivated,  and  some  hoed  crop  that  will  not  shade  them  may  be 
grown  between  the  rows  for  the  first  two  years.  After  this  the 
vines  will  need  all  the  land.  Cultivation  should  consist  of  a  shal- 
low plowing  early  each  spring  and  during  the  summer.  The  top 
soil  should  be  kept  loose  and  light  by  shallow  cultivation.  Deep 
cultivation  or  much  cultivation  late  in  summer  is  not  desirable  in  a 
vineyard,  and  it  may  cause  serious  injury.  If  the  land  is  lightly 
plowed  each  spring  no  large  surface-roots  will  have  time  to  form; 
but  if  this  is  neglected  for  several  years  large  surface-roots  will 
get  started,  and  then  plowing  may  seriously  injure  the  vines. 

Pruning  and  Training  are  the  great  bugbears  1o  amateurs 
in  grape  growing,  and  the  attempt  to  follow  some  peculiar  method 
has  done  more  than  anything  else  to  discourage  the  growing  of  this 
fruit  by  farmers.    As  a  matter  of  fact  vines  will  grow  and  bear 
fruit  without  any  pruning  whatever.    Pruning  is  done  simply  to 
get  the  most  good  fruit  from  the  least  amount  of  vine,  and  for  prac- 
tical purposes  it  is  a  very  simple  matter.    There  are,  however, 
many  systems  described  in  books,  and  occasionally  used  in  prac- 
tice, that  are  quite  complicated  and  difficult  for  a  beginner  to  un- 
derstand.   The  practical  points  to  have  in  mind  in  pruning  grapes 
are:    (1)  That  the  old  wood  which  has  borne  fruit  once  never  bears 
again.     (2)  That  tha  wood  that  is  formed  one  season  produces  the 
bearing  wood  for  the  next  season.     (3)  If  all  the  new  wood  is  left 
on  the  vine  it  will  bear  ten  times  more 
clusters  than  it  can  properly  develop, 
and  they  will  all  be  small  and  imperfect. 
(4)  If  ninetenths  of  the  new  wood  is  cut 
away  leaving  only   from  three   to   six 
buds  to  each  stalk  the  yield  of   good 
grapes  will  be  much  increased.     (5)  It 
is  desirable  in  severe  climates  to  train 
the  vine  so  that  it  can  be  laid  down  on 
i  he  ground  with  but  little  resistance,  for 
in  such  locations  it  is  necessary  to  pro- 
tect it  each  winter.  FIG  31.— Autumn  of  first  year. 

If  these  points  are  borne  in  mind  it     J^t/£"r  ^  ***  prepared 
matters  not  so  very  much  what  system 
or  whether  any  system  at  all  is  pursued 
in  pruning.    However,  it  will  be  found 
most  convenient  to  adhere  somewhat  cleany  to  some  simple  system 


THE  GRAPE.  45 

of  pruning.  But  whatever  plan  for  after-training  is  adopted  the 
care  of  the  vine  for  the  first  two  years  should  be  about  the  same. 

THE  FIRST  YEAR  no  support  or  pruning  is  needed.  The  vines 
will  ripen  their  wood  as  well  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  as  if 
tied  to  stakes,  but  it  will  be  more  convenient  about  cultivating  if 
they  are  staked.  Late  in  the  autumn  of  this  year  all  of  the  vines 
should  be  cut  away  except  three  or  four  buds,  as  shown  in  Pig.  31, 
which  should  be  covered  with  a  mound  of  earth  four  or  five  inches 
deep,  and  later  on,  before  cold  weather  sets  in,  apply  a  covering  of 
mulch,  two  or  three  inches  in  depth,  of  straw  or  litter  of  some  sort. 
This  mulching  is  absolutely  necessary  to  insure  the  wintering  of 
newly  transplanted  vines. 

Trellis.— The  following  spring  a  trellis  should  be  built— unless 
stakes  were  set  the  first  year,  v^hen  they  may  be  used  again — and 


FIG.  32.—  Vine  in  spring  of  the  third  season. 

the  work  of  putting  up  a  trellis  be  deferred  until  the  opening  of 
the  third  year.  The  form  of  trellis  may  vary  greatly,  but  a  very 
practical  and  simple  kind  is  made  by  setting  posts  twelve  feet 
apart  in  the  row,  and  using  four  wires  of  No.  12  galvanized  iron, 
putting  the  lowest  one  about  eighteen  inches  from  the  ground,  and 
those  above  ten  inches  apart.  The  wires  should  be  fastened 
securely  to  one  end  post,  passing  through  the  other  end  and 
through  staples  driven  in  the  inside  posts,  so  as  to  allow  the  wires 
free  play  through  them.  This  method  allows  the  loosening  of  the 
wires  in  autumn  and  tightening  them  in  summer. 

THE  SECOND  YEAR,  as  soon  as  the  weather  is  settled,  the  vine 
should  be  uncovered ;  the  garden  fork  being  the  best  tool  for  this 
purpose.  Permit  only  one  bud  to  grow,  and  that  the  strongest  that 
starts.  Rub  off  all  the  others  that  show,  while  they  are  smalL 


4*', 


THE   GKAPE. 


Tie  the  cane  as  it  grows  to  the  -stakes  or  wires,  and  if  it  grows 
rapidly  pinch  off  the  top  once  when  it  reaches  the  upper  wire.  In 
carrying  out  some  systems  two  canes  are  permitted  to  grow  this 
year,  but  the  system  best  adapted  to  commercial  vineyards  is  prac- 
tically as  follows:  The  pruning  in  the  fall  of  the  second  year 
should  consist  in  cutting  off  all  the  laterals— in  other  words  in  cut- 
ting off  all  the  side  branches  close  to  the  main  cane.  In  pruning 
the  main  cane  leave  about  two-thirds  of  the  growth  it  has  made, 
but  not  more  than  four  feet  long.  The  vine  should  then  be  buried 
as  directed  for  the  previous  year,  and  it  will  be  found  convenient 
to  bend  it  as  low  as  possible.  To  do  this  to  the  best  advantage 
take  away  a  little  soil  from  near  the  vine,  to  permit  part  of  the 
bend  to  come  near  the  ground.  As  the  vines  get  older  and  stiffer 
they  will  be  found  to  bend  most  easily  and  safely  below  ground. 


FIG.  S3.— Vine  in  autumn  of  ffie  third  season.    Doffed   lives   show   where 
pruning  should  be  done. 

THIRD  SEASON. — The  third  spring  the  cane  should  be  tied  along 
the  lower  wire  (see  Fig.  32;.  If  it  has  wintered  well  two  shoots 
will  start  at  nearly  every  joint.  As  soon  as  these  are  three  or  four 
inches  long  the  weakest  should  be  broken  off  and  only  the  strongest 
ones,  that  come  about  ten  inches  apart,  be  allowed  to  grow.  In 
selecting  these  shoots  preference  should  always  be  given  to  those 
coming  out  on  the  upper  side  of  the  main  cane.  As  these  shoots 
push  upwards  from  the  main  cane  they  should  be  tied  to  the  wires 
(see  Fig.  33),  and  when  they  have  reached  the  top  of  the  trellis 
each  of  them  should  be  pinched  off  at  the  end.  This  pruning  wiU 
check  the  growth  a  little  and  result  in  the  fruit  buds  being  formed 
nearer  the  main  cane  than  they  would  if  not  checked.  Further 
pinching  is  sometimes  practiced  when  the  finest  bunches  of  fruit 
are  wanted,  but  for  practical  purposes  one  pinching  is  enough,  and 


THE  GRAPE.  47 

some  large,  successful  growers  do  not  pinch  at  all,  though  it  is 
probably  a  mistake  not  to  pinch  once,  if  this  system  of  pruning  is 
followed. 

If  the  vine  is  thrifty  it  will  bear  several  pounds  of  fruit  this 
year.  As  soon  as  convenient  after  gathering  the  ripe  fruit  the 
vines  may  be  pruned.  It  is'not  necessary  to  wait  for  a  frost  to  kill 
the  leaves,  and  it  will  not  do  any  harm  to  bury  with  some  of  the 
leaves  on  the  vine.  In  this  region  the  time  of  pruning  is  between 
the  middle  of  October  and  tenth  of  November.  Where  one  has  but 
few  vines  it  is  best  to  wait  until  there  is  danger  of  the  ground 
freezing  hard  before  laying  them  down,  but  in  large  vineyards  it  is 
not  practicable  to  wait  so  late,  and  the  work  must  commence  ear- 
lier. In  pruning  the  third  fall,  first  select  a  cane  near  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  main  cane  and  cut  it  off  at  a  length  sufficient  to  reach  the 


FIG.  34.—  Vine  in  spring  of  the  fourth  season. 

next  vine  on  the  trellis.  This  cane  must  be  tied  to  the  lower  wire 
the  following  (or  fourth)  spring,  and  will  complete  the  permanent 
main  cane  (see  Fig.  34).  The  rest  of  the  pruning  this  fall  will  con- 
sist of  cutting  back  to  from  three  to  six  buds  the  other  shoots  that 
have  grown  from  the  main  cane.  Any  small  side  branches  that 
may  remain  should  be  cut  off,  and  the  vine  when  ready  to  lay  down 
should  resemble  Fig.  35,  which  shows  it  properly  tied  to  the  trellis 
the  following  spring.  In  pruning  do  not  cut  nearer  than  within 
one  inch  of  any  bud,  to  avoid  winter  killing.  Bury  as  directed. 

Spur  is  a  term  used  to  indicate  the  short  stubs  of  the  laterals 
that  remain  on  the  main  cane  in  this  and  following  years  after  prun- 
ing. From  these  spurs  come  the  new  growth  and  fruit  each  sea- 
son. It  is  desirable  to  keep  them  as  short  as  possible,  but  with 
some  varieties  it  will  be  found  difficult  to  keep  them  very 'short; 


48 


THE   GRAPE. 


for  instance,  Moore's  Early  is  a  shy  bearer,  and  if  pruned  very 
close  will  not  bear  even  a  fair  crop,  consequently  the  spurs  on  it 
must  be  left  longer  than  on  some  other  kinds  that  are  more  prolific. 
But  careful  attention  in  pruning  to  save  the  growth  from  the  low- 
est bud  on  the  spur  will  aid  very  much  in  keeping  them  within 
bounds.  (See  Fig.  31.) 

These  spurs  should  be  about  ten  inches  apart  on  the  main  cane. 
If  in  after  years  some  of  them  are  lost,  or  they  become  too  long,  a 
new  main  cane  may  be  introduced  by  encouraging  the  growth  of  a 
new  shoot  or  by  renewing  the  main  cane  with  a  shoot  from  a  spur 
near  the  ground,  after  which,  when  well  started,  the  main  cane 
may  be  cut  away.  However,  there  are  vineyards  in  the  hands  oi 
careful  cultivators  that  have  grown  large  crops  for  many  years,  on 
which  none  of  the  spurs  are  lost,  neither  are  they  long  enough  to  be 
at  all  troublesome,  and  yet  the  main  cane  has  never  been  renewed. 


FIG.  35.—  Vine  in  autumn  of  1  he  fourth  season      Dotted  lines  show  where 
pruning  should  be  done. 

FOURTH  SEASON.— Tie  the  vine  to  the  lower  wire  in  the  spring 
as  directed,  when  it  should  appear  much  as  in  Fig.  34.  Permit 
only  one  shoot  to  grow  from  each  bud  on  the  spurs.  These  should 
be  pinched  once  when  they  have  reached  the  top  wire,  and  after 
that  allowed  to  grow  freely.  This  autumn,  and  subsequently, 
when  pruned  the  vine  will  consist  of  a  main  cane  extending  along 
the  lower  wire  of  the  trellis  to  the  next  vine.  It  will  have  spurs 
on  it  of  three  or  more  buds  each,  standing  some  eight  or  ten  inches 
apart,  as  shown  in  Fig.  36.  Under  this  system  if  the  canes  are  not 
pinched  in  summer  the  fruit  buds  will  be  formed  high  up  on  the 
laterals  and  consequently  the  spurs  will  have  to  be  left  very  long 
in  order  to  have  any  fruit,  while  if  pinched,  the  fruit  buds  will  be 
formed  nearer  the  main  cane,  and  the  spurs  can  be  kept  short.  It 


THE   GRAPE 


49 


has  frequently  happened  that  inexperienced  persons  failed  to  get 
much  fruit  on  their  vines  because  in  pruning  they  had  cut  away  all 
the  fruit  bearing  wood.  However,  this  pinching  should  never  take 
off  more  than  the  tip  of  the  cane. 

Removing  Foliage.— Under  no  circumstances  should  any 
considerable  foliage  be  taken  from  the  vine  while  it  is  growing. 
The  notion  that  ripening  fruit  needs  the  sunlight  is  very  much  at 
fault.  Grapes  ripen  best  where  the  fruit  is  in  the  shade  and  the 
leaves  in  the  bright  sunlight.  The  leaves  are,  so  to  speak,  both 
lungs  and  stomach  to  the  plant,  and  anything  that  injures  them 
prevents  the  ripening  of  the  fruit. 

An  Easy  System  of  Pruning,  and  also  one  that  is  well 
adapted  to  practical  purposes,  may  be  described  as  follows:  Plant 


FIG.  36.— Permanent  vine  in  autumn  of  fifth  and  subRtqaeni  years. 
Dotted  Lines  show  where  pruning  should  be  dune. 

the  vines  twelve  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  The  second  year  permit 
two  shoots  to  grow,  and  in  pruning  in  the  autumn  of  this  year  cut 
out  the  weak  wood  only.  The  third  year  tie  one  cane  to  the  lower 
wire  and  the  other  to  the  third  wire.  Encourage  the  vine  to  spread 
over  the  trpllis,  and  in  pruninsr  leave  perhaps  one-third  of  the  new 
wood.  In  after  years  retain  enough  young  thrifty  wood  to  fully 
cover  the  trellis,  which  will  be  a:l  that  the  roots  can  properly  sup- 
port, and  cut  out  as  much  old  and  weak  wood  as  practicable,  and 
shorten  any  very  long  canes.  This  will  require  the  cutting  out  of 
perhaps  four-fifths  the  new  wood  each  year.  As  the  vine  gets  old 
encourage  the  growth  of  one  or  two  young  shoots  from  near  the 
root.  When  the  main  cane  Decomes  so  stiff  that  it  cannot  be  easily 
buried  in  winter  it  may  be  replaced  with  one  of  these  shoots  from 
near  the  root,  or  what  is  generally  preferred,  the  stiff  part  of  the 
main  cane  may  be  buried  permanently  and  some  of  the  younger 


50  THE  GRAPE. 

wood,  branches  from  the  main  cane,  may  be  trained  to  form  a  new 
main  cane.  The  main  cane  so  laid  down  will  become  rooted  and 
thus  strengthen  the  new  vine  formed  from  one  of  its  branches. 
Under  this  system  no  summer  pinching  is  necessary.  After  the 
vines  have  been  trained  in  this  way  for  eight,  ten,  or  more  years, 
there  should  be  many  flexible  main 
canes,  and  as  they  get  old  and  too  stiff 
to  bend  easily  they  should  either  be  cut 
out  and  replaced  by  some  young  bear- 
ing shoot  or  layered  as  recommended. 
Trained  in  this  way  a  vineyard  does  not 
look  as  symmetrical  and  pretty  as  when 
grown  on  some  more  regular  plan,  but 
it  will  produce  as  much  fruit  as  any 
system.  A  little  experience  will  soon 
show  the  beginner  the  amount  of  wood 
to  leave  each  year.  Vines  may  be  grown 
on  this  system  for  covering  high  arbors, 
trees,  the  sides  of  buildings  or  other  FIG.  37.—  A  Spur.  The  dotted 
objects.  In  fact  it  is  better  adapted  to  (ine*  *how  where  the  prun- 
a  rather  high  than  to  a  low  support. 

Training  vines  against  buildings  or  walls  is  a  good 
plan,  and  such  treatment  will  hasten  the  period  of  ripening  and 
protect  from  early  and  late  frosts.  Of  course,  the  southern  ex- 
posure is  always  preferable.  The  trellis  for  this  purpose  should  be 
about  one  foot  away  from  the  wall  or  building.  In  such  locations 
it  is  possible  to  mature  good  varieties  of  grapes  where  otherwise 
they  would  be  a  failure.  It  is  doubtful  if  there  is  a  habitable  sec- 
tion of  northwestern  United  States  where  fairly  good  grapes  will 
not  ripen  nearly  every  year  in  such  positions,  and  almost  every 
farm  offers  several  favorable  opportunities  of  this  sort.  The  soil 
close  to  buildings  may  not  be  such  as  is  desired,  but  it  can  easily 
be  improved,  or  entirely  removed  and  a  better  kind  substituted. 
And  sometimes  what  would  be  a  very  poor  soil  for  many  other 
crops  is  just  what  is  needed  for  the  grape.  There  are  cases  where 
in  such  locations  single  vines  have  borne  several  hundred  pounds 
of  grapes  in  one  season. 

Pruning  Neglected  Vines.— When  vines  have  been  neg- 
lected for  several  years  it  is  often  a  difficult  matter  for  the  begin- 
ner to  bring  them  under  any  system  of  pruning,  and  they  are  on 
this  account  allowed  to  go  unpruned  and  unproductive.  Some- 
times such  vines  may  best  be  brought  into  shape  by  cutting  away 
nine-tenths  of  the  wood  and  then  carefully  thinning  out  and  pinch- 
ing the  young  growth  that  may  start.  At  other  times  again  it  may 
be  best  to  cut  the  whole  vine  off  at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  If 
this  is  done  at  the  proper  season  for  pruning  several  sprouts  will 
start  from  near  the  root,  but  only  one,  or  at  most  two,  should  be 
saved.  These  sprouts  sheuld  be  trained  the  same  as  a  newly 
planted  vine,  except  that  in  one  season  they  will  make  a  vine  large 


THE  GRAPE.  51 

enough  to  bear  a  good  crop  of  fruit  the  following  year.  By  either 
method  only  one  fruiting  season  is  lost,  but  as  a  rule  the  greatest 
success  attends  the  latter  method. 

Time  of  Pruning.— The  best  time  to  prune  the  grape  is  late 
in  the  fall  or  very  early  in  the  spring.  If  the  vines  are  to  be  laid 
on  the  ground  in  winter  of  course  they  should  be  pruned  in  autumn, 
as  doing  it  then  will  greatly  facilitate  the  laying  down  process.  If 
for  any  reason  the  vines  have  not  been  pruned  until  the  buds  have 
started,  it  is  far  better  to  do  it  then  than  not  at  all.  The  so-called 
"bleeding"  of  vines  does  not  appear  to  seriously  injure  them, 
though  pruning  when  the  sap  will  run  from  the  cut  surfaces  is  a 
bad  plan. 


FIG.  37l/2.—An  old  grape  vine  pruned  on  the  one-cane,  spur  renewal  system 
as  recommended,    from  a  photograph. 

Thinning  the  Fruit. — Under  almost  any  system  of  pruning 
some  varieties  will  set  more  fruit  than  they  can  properly  mature. 
Where  this  is  the  case  the  poorest  bunches  should  be  cut  away  as 
soon  as  the  berries  are  well  formed.  As  a  rule,  the  improved  ap- 
pearance of  the  remaining  fruit  is  so  great,  as  the  result  of  this 
thinning  process,  as  to  make  the  operation  a  paying  one. 

Manures.— Ordinarily  the  new  soils  of  the  northwestern 
states  contain  an  abundance  of  plant  food.  Grapes  do  not  require 
much  manure,  and  the  best  kinds  for  them  are  those  which  have 
but  a  small  amount  of  organic  matter,  such  as  wood  ashes.  Yet  on 
gravelly  or  sandy  lands  they  may  be  much  benefited  by  the  liberal 
use  of  stable  manure.  Never  apply  manure  so  long  as  the  vines 
are  making  a  satisfactory  growth  without  it.  A  very  rapid,  long 
growth  is  not  nearly  as  desirable  as  that  which  is  well  matured 
and  moderate  in  quantity. 


52  THE  GRAPE. 


Grapes.—  In  sections  of  the  country  where  black 
rot  of  the  fruit  is  abundant  it  may  be  profitable  to  put  all  the 
grapes  in  bags,  but  in  sections  where  this  disease  is  .only  occasion- 
ally destructive  it  will  seldom  be  a  paying  operation.  But  in  grow- 
ing fruit  for  home  use,  or  where  something  very  nice  is  wanted,  it 
will  often  be  worth  undertaking,  as  the  expense  for  labor  and  ma- 
terial need  not  exceed  a  half  cent  per  pound.  The  bagged  grapes 
have  a  little  thinner  skin  than  those  not  bagged,  are  free  from  dust 
and  spiders'  webs,  and  are  not  so  liable  to  be  caught  by  the  first 
autumn  frost.  Some  varieties  seem  to  ripen  more  evenly  when 
bag-ged. 

Bagging  should  be  done  when  the  berries  are  about  the  size  of 
small  peas,  and  if  there  is  danger  from  rot,  even  earlier.  For  this 
purpose  ordinary  one-pound  manilla  paper  bags  should  be  used, 
such  as  may  be  obtained  from  any  grocery  store.  They  should  be 
cut  down  about  two  inches  on  each  side,  and  a  small  hole  made 
in  each  bag,  generally  by  cutting  off  the  lower  corners,  to  let  out 
any  water  that  might  collect  in  them.  They  are  then  ready  for 
use.  A  bag  is  brought  up  over  the  bunch,  above  the  branch,  and 
securely  fastened  with  a  pin.  The  bags  should  be  left  on  until 
picking  time,  when  the  bag  and  bunch  may  be  taken  off  together. 
If  the  fruit  is  to  be  stored  it  will  be  found  that  the  fruit  will 
keep  longer  in  the  bags  than  without  them.  Generally  the  bags 
remain  on  the  whole  season  without  trouble,  and  some  growers  use 
the  same  bags  for  two  seasons.  Cloth  bags  made  especially  for 
this  purpose  will  last  about  four  years.  In  France  a  wire  bag  is 
used  to  some  extent  for  this  purpose. 

Keeping  Grapes.  —  The  keeping  qualities  of  grapes  varies 
much  with  the  different  kinds  ;  some  varieties  will  hardly  keep  a 
week  after  being  gathered,  while  others  are  easily  kept  for  two  or 
three  months  by  using  only  ordinary  care.  A  moist,  cold  cellar  is 
a  very  good  place  to  keep  them.  The  bunches  should  first  be  re- 
lieved of  any  cracked  or  injured  berries,  and  then  laid  one  tier  deep 
on  shallow  trays  or  shelves,  so  that  the  air  may  circulate  freely 
among  them.  The  fruit  should  be  perfectly  dry  when  put  in  the 
cellar.  If  the  cellar  is  not  cool  when  needed  for  use  some  ice  may 
be  put  in  it  in  a  tub  and  the  windows  kept  shut  in  the  day  time  and 
opened  at  night.  If  the  grapes  are  packed  in  dry  saw  dust  or  cork 
bark  they  will  keep  even  better  than  on  trays.  Where  cold  storage 
is  accessible  they  may  be  packed  in  baskets  before  being  stored, 
but  in  any  case  great  care  should  be  taken  to  remove  any  injured 
berries,  or  they  will  rot  and  spoil  those  near  them. 

Girdling  the  Grape  to  advance  the  period  of  ripening  is 
practiced  to  a  limited  extent,  but  there  is  quite  a  difference  of 
opinion  regarding  the  ultimate  effect  of  the  operation  on  the  health 
and  vigor  of  the  vine.  It  seems,  however,  to  be  pretty  generally 
conceded  that  it  can  be  done  to  a  limited  extent  without  serious,  if 
any  injury.  That  it  generally  advances  the  period  of  ripening 
from  seven  to  ten  days,  and  that  the  fruit  from  girdled  vines  is 


THE   GRAPE. 


53 


considerably  larger  than  from  vines  not  girdled  and  of  just  as  good 
quality.  But  on  the  other  hand,  some  very  careful  experiments 
made  by  Dr.  Jabez  Fisher,  of  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  seem,  in  his  words, 
to  show  that  "whenever  a  grape  will  ripen  fairly  well  by  natural 
processes  girdling  is  a  complete  draft  upon  the  future  without 
prospect  of  means  to  pay  it  through  the  gains  of  the  present  "  The 
operation  consists  in  taking  out  a  ring  of  bark  one- fourth  inch  or 
more  in  width,  at  any  time  during  the  growing  season,  but  gener- 
ally soon  after  the  berries  are  well  set.  For  this  purpose  a  special 
tool  is  often  used,  which  makes  two  cuts  and  takes  out  the  bark 
with  one  movement  (Fig.  38).  If  the  whole  vine  is  girdled  at  the 


FIG.  38. 
Girdling  knife, 
made  of  two 
thin  steel 
blades  with 
cleaner  at  a. 


FIG.  39 .— Girdled 
Cane.  A,  ivht.re  ring 
of  bark  has  been  re- 
moved. Band  E, 
where  the  vine  is  to 
be  pruned  in  the 
fall,  thus  cutting 
off  the  gird' ed  wood 
entirely.  C  and  J), 
growth  from  re- 
maining buds  infol- 
lowing  year,  when 
D should  be  girdled 


surface  of  the  ground  it  will  soon  show  great  weakness,  so  when 
practiced  at  all  it  should  be  done  by  girdling  the  lateral  canes ; 
those  that  are  to  be  cut  away  entirely  when  the  vine  is  pruned 
(Fig.  39).  In  sections  where  early  autumn  frosts  are  common  it  is 
frequently  desirable  to  try  this  method  of  advancing  the  period  of 
ripening. 

Diseases.— There  are  many  diseases  which  may  at  times 
attack  the  grape,  but  only  two  are  commonly  met  with  in  the 
northwestern  states,  where  on  account  of  the  dryness  of  the  air 
there  is  less  trouble  from  fubgus  diseases  than  where  the  climate 
is  more  humid. 


54  THE  GRAPE. 

DOWNY  MILDEW  (Poronospora  viticola).  This  fungus  may  at- 
tack the  young  wood,  flowers  or  fruit,  or  all  these  at  the  same  time. 
When  it  attacks  the  foliage  it  first  appears  as  greenish-yellow  or 
brownish  irregular  spots  on  the  upper  surface,  with  corresponding 
spots  of  whitish  frost-like  mildew  on  the  under  side.  The  effect  of 
this  is  to  cause  the  leaves  to  dry  up  and  fall  off,  frequently  when 
the  fruit  is  quite  green,  which  consequently  does  not  ripen. 
But  besides  the  loss  of  the  fruit  from  this  disease  the  wood  is  often 
left  in  a  very  immature  state,  and  the  whole  plant  so  seriously 
weakened  that  it  will  not  produce  a  full  crop  of  fruit  for  several 
years.  It  frequently  acts  in  this  manner  on  the  Delaware,  while  it 
seldom  injures  the  fruit  of  that  variety.  On  other  varieties  the 
fruit  is  more  susceptible  than  the  foliage,  and  it  produces  brown 
rot  of  the  berries,  which  may  cause  severe  losses  some  seasons.  In 
this  case  the  first  perceptible  effect  of  the  disease  is  when  a  pur- 


FIG.  40.  FIG.  41. 

Berries  affected  with  brown  rot.  Berries  affected  with  black  rot. 

plish  spot  appears  on  the  side  of  the  berry.  .Later,  the  fruit  is 
covered  with  a  white  mould,  and  in  a  short  time  the  whole  fruit 
turns  brown,  and  later  on  becomes  soft  and  wrinkled.  Figure  40 
shows  a  cluster  of  mouldy  berries. 

BLACK  ROT  affects  the  fruit  which  it  seldom  attacks  until  the 
berries  are  two-thirds  grown;  these  shortly  dry  up,  turn  black, 
and  remain  hard  and  dry  on  the  vines,  often  until  the  following 
spring.  Each  dried  berry  is  covered  with  minute  postules.  This 
disease  is  only  occasionally  injurious  in  the  northwestern  states. 

Preventives.— There  are  no  remedies  for  either  of  these  dis- 
eases, for  after  the  fungus  finds  a  lodgment  in  the  tissues  of  the 
plant  we  are  powerless  to  destroy  it  without  injuring  the  plant 
itself.  Consequently  every  effort  should  be  used  to  keep  the  fun- 
gus from  getting  a  hold  on  the  plant.  It  has  been  found  that  where 
the  vines  are  closely  shut  in,  so  that  there  is  but  little  circulation 
of  air  and  the  water  does  not  quickly  dry  off  the  foliage,  or  where 


THE   GKAPE.  55 

the  soil  is  wet  and  cold,  that  the  vines  are  very  liable  to  become 
diseased.  On  this  account  where  a  vineyard  is  subject  to  these 
troubles  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  remedy,  so  far  as  is  practicable, 
anything  that  obstructs  free  circulation  of  air  through  it.  If  the 
land  is  moist  and  cold  it  should  be  underdrained.  For  brown  and 
black  rot  of  the  fruit  early  bagging  of  the  clusters  will  be  found 
quite  effective.  But  after  these  things  are  done  disease  may  gain 
a  foothold  and  cause  serious  injury  to  weak  varieties  in  warm,  wet 
seasons.  Some  varieties  are  almost  uniformly  healthy  in  good 
locations,  while  others  are  very  susceptible  to  disease.  Yet  these 
latter  are  often  the  most  profitable  kinds  to  grow  for  marketing 
purposes.  To  grow  these  successfully  recourse  must  be  had  to 
treatment  with  fungicides,  and  the  following  is  probably  the  best 
method  of  procedare,  and  if  carefully  followed  the  expense  of  the 
operation  and  the  loss  from  disease  will  be  very  slight. 

Use  of  Fungicides. — As  soon  as  the  fruit  has  set  spray  the 
vines  thoroughly  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  made  as  recommended 
in  chapter  on  strawberries.  Repeat  the  spraying  once  in  two 
weeks  until  the  grapes  begin  to  color,  using  Bordeaux  mixture  un- 
til August  1st,  and  after  that  date  the  ammoniacal  solution  of  car- 
bonate of  copper,  made  as  recommended  below.  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture should  never  be  used  after  August  1st,  or  it  may  adhere  to  the 
grapes  when  they  are  ripe  and  make  them  unsalable.  The  carbon- 
ate of  copper  mixture  has  sometimes  been  successfully  used  alone 
without  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  but  the  latter  is  most  desirable  be- 
cause it  stays  on  the  vine  even  in  very  rainy  weather,  when  the 
former  would  be  washed  off. 

For  applying  these  mixtures  a  knapsack  sprayer  and  a  nozzle 
that  makes  a  fine  spray  should  be  used.  There  are  now  many  good 
patterns  of  these  offered  by  different  companies  at  reasonable 
prices.  Of  course  a  common  syringe  with  a  rose  nozzle  could  be 
used  for  this  purpose,  but  it  will  be  found  to  waste  a  great  deal  of 
the  material  on  the  ground  and  put  more  on  the  plant  than  there  is 
any  need  of.  Carefully  conducted  experiments  show  that  when 
these  insecticides  are  applied  as  directed  there  need  be  no  fear 
that  injury  will  result  from  the  small  amount  of  copper  that  is  put 
on  the  fruit.  Almost  without  exception  the  copper  is  all  washed 
off  the  fruit  before  it  is  ripe.  In  extreme  cases  where  Bordeaux 
mixture  remains  on  the  fruit  it  can  all  be  taken  off  without  even 
injuring  the  bloom  by  dipping  the  fruit  into  water  slightly  acidu- 
lated with  vinegar.  The  fruit  does  not  absorb  any  of  the  copper. 

Ammoniacal  Carbonate  of  Copper  is  made  by  dissolving 
one  and  one-half  ounces  of  precipitated  carbonate  of  copper  in  one 
quart  of  commercial  ammonia.  Then  add  this  solution  to  twenty- 
five  gallons  of  water.  The  ammonia  should  be  kept  tightly  corked 
in  a  glass  or  earthen  vessel.  The  solution  should  be  added  to  the 
water  immediately  before  spraying,  otherwise  some  of  the  am- 
monia may  be  lost  by  evaporation. 


06  THE   GRAPE. 

Insects. — The  grape  is  generally  quite  free  from  insects  in 
this  section,  but  the  two  following  named  species  are  occasionally 
troublesome,  besides  which  there  are  several  others  that  may 
cause  damage  in  the  future,  but  as  at  present  they  are  not  numer- 
ous enough  to  do  much  harm  they  are  not  referred  to  here. 

Grape  Vine  Flea  Beetle  (Graptodera  chahjbea)  is  the  name 
of  a  small,  dark  colored  beetle  that  is  most  injurious  from  its  habit 
of  gnawing  out  the  buds  from  the  canes  in  early  spring  before 
vegetation  has  started.  Later  in  the  season  it  feeds  upon  the 
leaves  on  which  the  female  lays  her  small  orange-colored  eggs  in 
the  last  of  May  or  first  of  June.  The  young  larvae  riddle  the  leaf 
with  holes,  or  if  very  numerous  eat  all  except  the  largest  ribs,  but 
they  or  the  beetles  seldom  cause  serious  trouble  after  the  vine  is 
in  leaf. 

REMEDY.— The  beetle  may  be  jarred  from  the  vines  by  a  sud- 
den shake,  therefore  by  putting  a  piece:  of  cotton  cloth,  saturated 
with  kerosene,  on  the  ground  under  and  on  each  side  of  the  vine 
before  it  is  jarred  the  beetles  are  destroyed.  They  have  only  to 
touch  the  kerosene-covered  cloth  and  they  are  almost  instantly 
killed.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  pieces  of  cloth  are  together 
around  the  base  of  the  vine.  A  warm,  bright  afternoon  is  the 
proper  time  to  do  this  work,  and  it  should  be  very  faithfully  per- 
formed every  day  until  the  vines  are  out  of  danger.  By  two  per- 
sons working  together,  one  on  each  side  of  a  row  of  vines,  each 
with  a  piece  of  cloth,  the  work  can  be  done  very  rapidly. 

The  Eight  Spotted  Forester  (Alypia  octomaculata)  is  the 
name  given  to  a  blueish  looking  caterpillar  that  sometimes  is  quite 
destructive  to  grape  vines  and  the  Virginia  creeper  by  eating  the 
foliage.  It  may  be  kept  in  check  by  hand  picking  where  there  is 
only  a  limited  number,  but  when  very  abundant  recourse  must  be 
had  to  the  poisoning  of  the  foliage  with  arsenites. 

Varieties. — For  home  use  the  hardy,  healthy,  productive 
kinds  that  do  not  require  much  special  culture,  should  always  be 
given  the  preference ;  while  for  marketing  varieties  those  that 
need  special  culture  may  sometimes  be  most  profitable.  The  fol- 
lowing list  includes  the  best  of  the  varieties  that  have  been  well 
tested,  yet  there  are  many  others  that  produce  well,  and  yi  favored 
locations  may  even  be  superior  to  some  of  those  mentioned.  For 
the  ordinary  family  a  dozen  vines  are  a  great  plenty,  and  three  or 
four  that  are  well  managed  may  give  far  more  fruit  than  a  dozen 
that  are  neglected. 

BRIGHTON.— A  superb  red  grape  of  finest  quality,  of  strong 
growth  and  productive.  It  gives  quite  general  satisfaction,  but  in 
poor  locations  frequently  fails  to  ripen  evenly.  Its  flowers  have 
reflexed  stamens  and  it  should  be  planted,  near  perfect  flowering 
kinds. 

CONCORD.— Where  it  will  ripen  it  is  the  most  productive  and 
satisfactory  grape  grown.  Of  good  quality,  vigorous,  hardy  and 
healthy.  In  unfavorable  locations  in  this  section  it  often  fails  to 
ripen.  Black  grape. 


THE  GRAPE.  57 

COTTAGE.  ^-A  vigorous,  healthy,  hardy,  productive  black  grape 
of  very  good  quality.  Very  early,  and  on  account  of  this  and  its 
quality  it  should  be  generally  planted  in  the  home  garden.  It  is 
rather  undesirable  for  marketing  on  account  of  the  berries  easily 
separating  from  the  stem  soon  after  being  ripe. 

DELAWARE.— A  small,  red  grape  of  extra  good  quality.  Gener- 
ally more  popular  than  other  kinds  with  commercial  growers,  but 
it  is  quite  liable  to  mildew  in  some  seasons,  and  on  this  account 
should  be  avoided  except  by  those  who  have  extra  good  locations, 
or  who  will  give  it  extra  good  care. 

HARTFORD.  —  A  well  known  early  black  variety  of  fair  quality. 
Very  productive  and  hardy. 

JANESVILLE. — Very  vigorous,  healthy,  hardy  and  productive 
berry,  black,  rather  acid,  of  medium  size  in  a  very  compact  cluster. 
It  colors  very  early.  This  is  the  most  desirable  kinds  for  very 
severe  locations. 

LINDLEY.— Like  the  Brighton,  deficient  in  pollen,  but  quite 
productive  when  grown  near  other  kinds.  Of  extra  quality  and 
one  of  the  best  keeping  kinds ;  with  ordinary  care  it  will  keep  until 
January 

LADY.  —An  early  white  grape  of  excellent  quality ;  hardy  and 
healthy.  Not  very  productive. 

MOORE'S  EARLY.— The  earliest  grape  of  extra  good  quality. 
Vine  hardy,  vigorous,  healthy,  but  not  very  productive.  Berries 
very  large  and  black  with  a  heavy  bloom.  It  requires  rich  soil 
and  high  cultivation  for  best  results. 

POCKLINGTON.— A  little  later  in  ripening  than  Concord,  and  is 
among  white  grapes  what  that  variety  is  among  black  kinds,  the 
most  productive  and  satisfactory  where  it  can  be  ripened.  Hardy, 
healthy  and  productive.  Only  adapted  to  best  locations. 

WORDEN.— A  magnificent  black  grape  of  better  quality  and  ten 
days  earlier  than  Concord.  Hardy,  productive  and  healthy.  For 
general  planting  to  be  preferred  to  Concord.  It  should  be  in  every 
collection.  Occasionally  it  drops  badly  from  the  stem.  It  brings 
the  highest  price  where  well  known. 

GREEN  MOUNTAIN  is  a  new  grape  that  is  promising  for  home 
use  on  account  of  its  being  very  early  and  of  extra  quality.  Berries 
small  and  greenish-white  in  color.  They  seem  inclined,  however, 
to  drop  easily  from  the  bunch. 

MOORE'S  DIAMOND. — A  very  promising  new  white  grape  of 
good  quailty,  ripening  from  four  to  eight  days  before  the  Concord. 
Very  hardy  and  productive. 

List  of  Varieties  Recommended.— For  very  severe  locations: 
Janesville,  Ives,  Hartford. 

For  fairly  good  location*:  Janesville,  Hartford,  Cottage,  Wor- 
den,  Lady,  Brighton,  Moore's  Early. 

For  extra  good  locations:  Concord,  Delaware,  Worden,  Lady, 
Cottage,  Pocklington,  Lindley,  Moore's  Early. 


CHAPTER    V. 


THE  CRANBERRY. 


"RANBERRY  (Vaccinium  macrocaepon) .     This  is  the  low  trail- 
ing cranberry  of  the  swamps  of  many  of  the  northern  states. 
The  form  and  habit  is  well  illustrated  in  figure  42.    The  so  called 
high  bush  cranberry  is  a  shrub  and  is  nmch  more  widely  distrib- 
uted than  this.      The 
latter  has  one  flat  seed 
in  each  fruit,  while  the 
former  is  a  many  seed- 
ed berry.     This  plant 
is  not  adapted  to  gen- 
eral   cultivation,    and 
seldom  if  ever  does  well 
on  the  prairies  of  the 
West.    It  may  be  laid 
down  as  a  general  rule 
that  it  cannot  be  suc- 
cessfully cultivated  ex- 
cept on  the  granitic 
soils   of   the    northern 
states,  and  that  it  will 
be  a  failure  on  the  lime- 
stone drift  soils,  such 
as  are  common  to  the 
prairies  of  Minnesota, 
Iowa  and  the  Dakotas. 
In  Wisconsin  and  east- 
ern and  northern  Min- 
nesota it  is  often  very 
productive,  either  wild 
or  cultivated,  and  is  an 
article  of  much  impor- 
tance in  the  markets  of 
those   sections   each 
year.    Where  this  fruit 
58 


FIG.  42.— Cranberry  plant,  and  fruit. 
One-half  natural  size. 


THE   CRANBERRY.  *». 

can  be  cultivated  it  is  often  the  most  paying  crop  that  can  be 
grown. 

Best  Location  for  Cranberry  Beds.— In  a  wild  state  this 
plant  is  found  at  its  best  on  moist  land  where  the  water  level  is 
within  eighteen  inches  of  the  surface.  It  seems  to  be  rather  indif- 
ferent about  the  soil,  sometimes  growing  on  sand  and  then  on  peat 
mud  or  moss.  As  a  rule  the  best  locations  are  low  meadow  lands 
sloping  down  to  ponds,  or  watered  by  brooks  or  creeks,  somewhat 
sheltered  but  shaded.  On  uplands  it  has  been  successfully  culti- 
vated, but  in  such  situations  it  is  generally  unprofitable  and  fre- 
quently an  entire  failure.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule  that  the 
soil  in  which  this  plant  is  to  thrive  must  be  liberally  supplied 
with  water,  and  yet  the  land  must  be  so  drained  that  the  water 
can  at  will  be  drawn  off  to  at  least  ten  inches  below  the  surface. 
The  best  cranberry  bogs  are  so  arranged  that  both  the  flowage  and 
drainage  can  be  controlled  at  will.  Land  that  has  been  covered 
with  stagnant  water  for  a  long  time,  as  the  bottom  of  ponds,  is  not 
fit  for  the  growth  of  this  plant  until  it  has  been  cultivated  and  ex- 
posed to  the  air  for  a  year  or  more. 

Soil  Adapted  to  It.— Wherever  the  cranberry  is  growing 
naturally  one  may  be  sure  that  the  land  near  by  is  adapted  to  its 
culture.  If  no  wild  plants  are  growing  near  the  supposed  proper 
location  it  is  a  safe  and  good  plan  to  plant  a  few  rods  of  the  most 
favorable  portion  of  it  as  an  experiment  before  spending  much 
time  or  money  on  improvements  which  may  prove  to  be  futile. 
With  a  bog  adapted  to  the  growing  of  this  plant,  with  control  of 
the  drainage  and  flowage,  a  good  crop  of  fruit  is  assured  for  almost 
every  year,  if  the  work  of  preparation  is  properly  done.  Yet  there 
are  many  wild  and  cultivated  bogs  that  have  yielded  very  profit- 
able crops  for  many  years  where  the  flowage  has  not  been  con- 
trolled, and  hence  if  that  factor  cannot  be  directed  at  will  is  not 
necessarily  a  sufficient  reason  why  an  attempt  should  not  be  made 
to  plant  suitable  land,  providing  the  work  can  be  done  at  small 
cost.  The  returns  from  natural  cranberry  bogs  may  often  be 
greatly  increased  by  a  little  judicious  expenditure. 

Preparation  of  the  Land.— The  first  steps  should  be  di- 
rected to  destroying  the  vegetation  growing  on  the  land.  The 
proper  method  of  doing  this  will  vary  according  to  the  location  and 
condition  of  the  land.  It  can  sometimes  be  done  by  flooding  the 
land  for  one  year  and  then  clearing  it,  or  by  summer  fallowing, 
and  it  may  occasionally  pay  to  cut  off  the  whole  surface  of  the  bog, 
with  spade  or  turf  ax,  and  remove  it  by  hand.  But  in  some  way 
the  surface  of  the  land  must  be  cleaned  of  its  growth  and  made 
level,  and  fine  and  perfect  as  a  garden.  If  it  is  to  be  flowed  it 
should  be  made  perfectly  level,  as  it  will  then  take  much  less  water 
for  flowage  than  if  uneven.  This  matter  is  especially  important 
where  the  water  supply  is  limited. 

Supplying  Sand. — It  is  of  great  advantage  to  have  the  sur- 
face of  the  land  covered  with  about  four  inches  of  clean  sand,  and 


60  THE   CRANBERRY. 

this  should  be  done  even  if  at  considerable  expense.  The  sand 
used  should  preferably  be  rather  coarse,  but  it  must  be  free  from 
clay  or  loam,  as  anything  that  encourages  the  taking  of  the  surface 
of  the  bed  is  injurious.  This  sand  offers  a  good  place  for  the 
plants  to  root,  is  easily  cultivated,  and  experience  shows  that  it 
conduces  to  fruitfulness.  Yet  there  are  many  very  fruitful  peat 
beds  that  have  never  been  sanded.  If  a  peat  bed  is  to  be  used 
without  sand  the  surface  should  be  exposed  to  frost  one  year 
before  planting  or  it  will  be  likely  to  bake  hard,  but  after  one  sea- 
son's frost  it  becomes  loose  and  fine. 

Drainage  and  Flowage. — The  method  of  securing  these 
conditions  will  depend  much  on  the  situation  of  the  land.  The 
drainage  is  generally  best  accomplished  by  digging  an  open  ditch 
four  or  more  feet  wide  through  the  center  of  the  land ;  a  smaller 
ditch  should  completely  enclose  the  land,  which  should  be  divided 
into  beds  by  lateral  ditches,  about  five  rods  apart.  Where  springs 
are  met  with  they  must  be  connected  with  a  ditch. 

Importance  of  Water. — The  flowage  may  sometimes  be 
controlled  from  a  pond  above  the  bog,  or  by  a  brook  or  creek 
running  through  it.  Every  reasonable  effort  should  be  made  to 
secure  and  control  water  for  flowage  for  the  following  reasons : 
(1)  Without  a  good  water  supply  bogs  often  get  very  dry  in 
periods  of  protracted  drouth,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  plants,  and 
occasionally  peat  or  moss  bogs  get  on  fire  and  burn  up,  destroying 
all  the  work  done.  A  bog  once  on  fire  can  seldom  be  saved  except 
by  flooding.  (2)  The  water  kept  over  the  plants  in  the  spring  will 
serve  to  retard  the  blossoming  until  danger  of  frost  is  past,  and 
will  protect  the  fruit  from  early  frosts  in  autumn.  (3)  Beds  that 
are  kept  under  water  until  late  in  the  spring  are  seldom  seriously 
injured  by  insects.  (4)  Beds  do  best  when  protected  by  a  water 
covering  in  winter.  If  not  thus  protected  they  may  be  seriously 
injured. 

Where  there  is  considerable  fall  in  the  bed  it  is  customary  to 
finish  it  at  several  grades  and  to  put  in  as  many  dams,  but  where 
there  is  not  more  than  two  or  three  feet  of  fall  one  dam  is  quite 
sufficient.  Dams  should  be  made  strong  and  have  sluice  ways 
large  enough  to  let  off  all  the  water  liable  to  drain  through  them. 

About  Flowing.— All  that  is  required  in  flowing  a  bog  is 
sufficient  water  to  cover  the  vines ;  they  should  be  covered  about 
the  first  of  November,  and  as  deep  as  they  are  to  remain  covered 
during  the  winter.  The  freezing  of  the  vines  in  the  ice  does  not 
hurt  them,  but  raising  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  bed  after  they 
are  frozen,  and  thus  raising  the  ice  and  tearing  the  vines  out  of  the 
ground,  is  where  the  great  danger  lies.  To  avoid  this  the  sluice- 
ways should  be  kept  sufficiently  open  to  allow  any  surplus  water 
to  pass  off. 

The  first  two  seasons  the  water  should  be  kept  on  the  vines 
until  the  last  of  April,  but  after  that,  or  when  the  bog  is  in  condi- 
tion to  bear,  the  water  should  be  kept  on  until  the  last  of  May  or 


THE   CRANBERRY. 


first  of  June.  The  object  of  keeping  it  on  so  late  is  to  prevent  in- 
jury from  late  frosts,  and  to  destroy  the  fruit  worm  and  fire  worm, 
which  are  the  worst  foes  of  the  cranberry.  If  the  fruit  is  covered 
with  water  in  warm  weather  it  is  very  liable  to  be  ruined,  but  the 
vines  are  uninjured'  by  such  flowage.  Throughout  the  growing 
season  the  water  should  be  about  twelve  inches  below  the  surface 
of  the  bed. 

Plants  and  Planting.— In  selecting  plants  great  care  should 
be  used  to  get  them  from  fruitful  beds,  as  some  are  almost  barren. 
There  are  very  many  named  kinds,  and  they  vary  greatly  in  size, 
growth,  time  of  ripening  and  pro- 
ductiveness, but  it  is  doubtful  if  any 
of  the  named  kinds,  the  most  of 
which  have  originated  in  the  East, 
are  adapted  to  the  climate  of  this 
section,  and  it  is  probably  bet'er  for 
the  present  to  depend  on  getting 
plants  from  the  most  fruitful  wild 
cultivated  beds  near  at  hand.  The 
kind  most  esteemed  at  the  East  is 
called  the  Early  Black.  It  is  very 
early  and  productive,  though  not  a 
vigorous  grower. 

The  cranberry  plant  grows  very 

readily  from  cuttings,  and  on  this  ac- 
count  slovenly    growers    sometimes 

cut  the  plants  in  a  hay  cutter,  sow 

the    pieces    broadcast   and    harrow 

them  in.  but  that  method  of  planting 

is  not  advisable.     The  most  common 

way  is  to  make  cuttings  of  the 

younger  parts  of  the  vines  about  ten 

inches  long,  and  plant  three  or  four 

together,  as  shown  in  Pig.   43,  but 

sometimes  longer  cuttings  are  used 

which    are    doubled    when  planted. 

The  cuttings  may  be  carried  over  a 

whole  season  with  good  success,  if 


FIG.  43  —Showing  method  of 
planting  cranberry  cuttings. 


they  are  kept  covered  with  running  water,  but  in  stagnant  water 
they  would  be  likely  to  spoil.  On  this  account  they  may  be  set  at 
almost  any  season  of  the  year  if  the  flowage  is  controlled,  but  the 
spring  of  the  year  is  generally  preferred,  and  if  there  is  no  chance 
to  flow  at  will  it  is  by  far  the  surest  time  to  plant. 

Before  planting  is  commenced  the  bed  should  be  marked  off 
each  way  at  eighteen  inch  intervals.  In  planting,  a  wooden  dibber 
is  used  having  an  incurved  or  reversed  wedge-shaped  point,  with 
which  the  cuttings  are  crowded  through  the  sand  down  into  con- 
tact with  the  bog  beneath  at  one  operation,  without  first  making 
a  hole  as  is  customary  in  the  ordinary  use  of  a  dibber.  After  the 


6&  THE   CRANBERRY." 

cuttings  are  planted  the  water  should  be  raised  in  the  trenches 
sufficiently  to  keep  the  surface  land  a  little  moist  to  encourage  the 
rooting  of  the  cuttings.  The  after  cultivation  consists  in  keeping 
the  soil  moist  and  giving  clean  cultivation. 

Picking. — If  the  berries  are  allowed  to  fully  ripen  on  the  vine 
they  will  keep  much  better  than  if  picked  earlier,  but  where  there 
is  danger  of  frost  before  they  are  ripe  the  berries  should  be  picked 
as  soon  as  they  commence  to  color,  though  when  picked  thus  early 
they  will  seldom  keep  well  after  the  middle  of  January.  If  severe- 
ly frozen  the  berries  are  ruined,  but  they  are  not  injured  by  a 
"white  frost."  Picking  is  generally  done  by  hand,  though  some 
few  growers  "rake"  them  off  the  vines.  The  berries  keep  well  in 
a  dry,  cool  place,  but  they  are  more  easily  kept  if  covered  witli 
water. 


CHAPTER    VI. 


DWARF  JUNEBERRY. 


5J1WARF  JUNEBERRY  (Amalanchier  Canadensis,  variety  oblvig- 
2*3  if  olio,.}  This  is  also  called  shad  bush  and  service  berry. 
There  are  several  so-called  varieties  of  it  found  in  the  north- 
ern states,  one  of  which  makes  a  small  tree,  but  it  is  better  known 
in  its  dwarf  form,  which  is  so  very  distinct  from  the  tree  form  as 
to  seem  quite  worthy  of  being  made  a  separate  species.  This  latter 


FIG.  44.—  Foliage  and  fruit  of  Dwarf  Juneberry,  about  one-half 
natural,  size.    A,  Fruit  natural  size. 


64  THE   DWARF   JUNEBERRY. 

form  is  quite  abundant  and  occasionally  very  productive.  It  is  the 
selected  kinds  of  it  that  are  cultivated  for  fruit.  It  generally 
grows  from  four  to  six  feet  high ;  is  covered  with  a  profusion  of 
white  flowers  early  in  the  spring,  and  ripens  its  fruit  in  July  with 
the  raspberries.  The  berry  is  of  a  purplish  red  color,  often  nearly 
one-half  inch  in  diameter.  Figure  44  shows  its  size  and  form. 
Like  the  blueberries,  the  quality  of  the  fruit  is  sweet  though  rather 
tame,  but  by  the  addition  of  a  little  lemon  juice  it  makes  an  excel- 
lent pie  or  sauce.  It  is  readily  cultivated  and  yields  regular  and 
abundant  crops.  However,  when  grown  in  a  small  way  the  fruit 
must  be  protected  from  the  bird  s  or  they  will  take  it  as  fast  as  it 
ripens.  Mosquito  netting,  or  the  coarse  wire  netting— such  as  is 
used  for  chicken  yards — is  useful  for  this  purpose.  When  grown 
on  a  large  scale  the  depredation  of  the  birds  is  not  so  apparent. 
The  plants  are  extremely  hardy,  seldom  if  ever  being  injured  by 
our  most  severe  winters,  and  are  healthy  and  free  from  insect 
pests.  On  account  of  its  many  good  qualities  it  should  find  a  place 
in  the  home  garden,  and  it  could  often  be  cultivated  for  the  near 
market  at  a  profit. 


FIG.  4b.—Full  size  flowers  of  Dwarf  Ju-neberry. 

Propagation  and  Cultivation.— The  plants  are  readily  in- 
creased from  suckers,  which  are  produced  rather  sparingly  around 
the  old  plants.  These  should  be  set  out  at  about  four  foot  intervals 
in  rows  five  feet  apart,  on  rich  upland.  They  commence  to  bear  in 
two  years,  but  will  not  produce  a  full  crop  until  the  fourth  year. 


THE  DWARF  JUNBBBRRT.  65 

They  need  clean  cultivation,  and  in  dry  situations  should  be 
mulched  to  protect  from  drouth.  They  require  but  little  pruning, 
though  the  suckers  should  be  thinned  out  if  they  become  abundant. 

Varieties*— There  are  but  few  varieties  of  this  fruit  offered 
by  nurserymen,  and  these  are  the  result  of  selections  made  from 
plants  growing  in  the  wild  state.  They  are,  however,  much  super- 
ior in  size  of  fruit  and  in  productiveness  to  the  plants  commonly 
found  in  the  fields,  although  these  latter  are  greatly  improved  by 
cultivation.  It  is  very  probable  that  by  growing  seedlings  new 
varieties  much  superior  to  those  now  known  will  be  originated. 
The  kinds  now  grown  require  several  weeks  in  which  to  ripen  their 
fruit.  The  varieties  that  have  been  grown  long  enough  to  give 
them  a  fair  trial  are  as  follows : 

Success.— This  probably  originated  in  Kansas.  It  is  productive 
of  large  purple  fruit  of  good  quality;  rather  spreading  in  habit, 
with  pendulous  fruit  clusters.  Earlier  than  the  others  mentioned, 
ripening  about  with  the  early  currants.  Probably  as  good  as  any 
if  not  the  best  for  general  cultivation. 

Chester  Center  and  Alpina  are  strong  growing  kinds  of  decided 
merit.  They  are  rather  close  and  erect  in  habit,  and  may  attain  a 
heighthof  seven  or  eight  feet;  very  productive ;  fruit  reddish  pur- 
ple ;  fruit  clusters  more  erect  than  in  Success ;  season  a  little  later 
than  that  variety. 

Osape.— Resembles  the  Success  in  habit  but  is  not  so  produc- 
tive, and  is  the  latest  of  the  kinds  mentioned. 

Aside  from  its  fruit  producing  qualities  the  Dwarf  Juneberries 
make  nice  lawn  shrubs,  being  clean  in  habit  and  very  pretty  when 
covered  with  their  .profusion  of  graceful  white  flowers,  which 
appear  early  in  the  spring.  See  Fig.  45. 


CHAPTER    VII. 


SAND  CHERRY. 


.[AND  CHERRY  (Pruniix  pnmila).  This  fruit  plant  is  found 
in  Northern  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  the  Dakotas, 
and  elsewhere.  It  is  especially  fruitful  even  in  the  most 
severe  situations.  It  frequently  fruits  prodigiously  in  dry,  gravelly 
embankments  where  scarce  any  other  plant  can  find  existence.  In 
fact  it  seems  to  be  better  adapted  to  a  very  dry  than  to  a  moist 
location.  In  my  experience  with  it  plants  from  rich,  moist  land 
have  flowered  profusely  but  have  failed  to  set  much  fruit.  It 


FIG.  46  —Foliage  and  fruit  of  Sand  Cherry.    A,  Fruit  natural  size. 


THE   SAND   CHERRY.  67 

seems  quite  probable  that  where  the  rainfall  is  light  this  plant  will 
do  well  on  rich  soil,  but  where  the  precipitation  is  abundant  it  is 
best  adapted  to  sandy  or  gravelly  land.  Thus  it  fruits  abundantly 
on  the  sandy  land  of  Northern  Minnesota  and  on  the  dry,  rich  land 
of  the  Dakotas.  See  Fig.  46. 

Description.— Some  plants  will  reach  a  heighth  of  four  feet 
and  spread  five  feet  on  the  ground,  while  others  will  scarce  attain 
to  half  that  size.  The  fruit  resembles  the  cultivated  cherry,  but 
varies  considerably  in  form,  size  and  color  on  different  plants.  It 
is  generally  of  a  reddish — almost  black — color  when  ripe.  The  ripe 
fruit  varies  from  the  size  of  a  large  green  pea  to  five-eighths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  In  some  the  pit  is  small,  while  in  others  it  is 
very  large.  The  quality  is  generally  too  astringent  to  be  relished 
uncooked,  but  this  quality  varies  greatly  in  the  different  plants, 
some  being  fairly  palatable.  When  cooked  its  astringency  disap- 
pears and  it  makes  a  most  excellent  sauce.  Where  it  grows  abund- 
antly it  is  used  for  sauce  and  for  a  sort  of  wine,  which  is  said  to  be 
very  palatable.  It  is  not  only  a  productive  fruit  plant,  but  a  clean, 
strong  growing  shrub,  and  well  adapted  to  severe  locations  on  the 
lawn.  The  fruit  ripens  in  the  latter  part  of  July  and  first  of 
August.  It  seems  to  be  much  more  like  a  plum  than  a  cherry,  and 
perhaps  the  name  sand  plum  would  be  more  appropriate  for  it. 

Propagation.— It  grows  freely  from  seed,  which  should  be 
sown  as  soon  as  ripe  and  not  be  allowed  to  get  dry.  Seedlings 
vary  much,  and  selected  plants  should  be  grown  in  other  ways. 
They  fruit  in  about  three  years  from  seed.  In  many  sections  the 
wild  plants  may  be  dug  and  transplanted  to  the  garden.  Plants 
may  be  increased  by  layers,  suckers  and  from  root  cuttings,  and  by 
budding  and  grafting  on  the  sand  cherry  or  the  native  plum.  The 
easiest  way  to, increase  them  is  by  cutting  the  roots  around  the 
plants  but  eight  inches  away  from  the  main  stem  sometime  when 
the  plant  is  dormant,  and  all  the  cut  surfaces  will  sprout  and  form 
new  plants.  If  the  roots  are  cut  into  pieces  about  six  inches  long, 
and  these  treated  like  willow  cuttings  they  will  grow  nearly  as 
readily.  When  budded  on  the  plum  peculiar  looking,  interesting 
trees  are  formed,  which  are  quite  fruitful.  The  plum  may  also  be 
worked  on  the  sand  cherry  and  it  forms  a  good  union,  but  the  roots 
are  so  very  flexible  that  the  trees  are  liable  to  blow  over  unless  the 
union  is  set  very  deep.  The  common  cherry  does  not  take  freely 
on  it.  At  present  only  seedlings  are  offered  by  nurserymen,  there 
having  been  no  named  kinds  introduced. 

A  form  of  this  called  the  Dwarf  Rocky  Mountain  cherry  has 
recently  been  sent  out  from  Colorado,  but  has  not  been  sufficiently 
tried  to  warrant  conclusions  as  to  its  value  here.  It  is,  however, 
extremely  doubtful  if  it  is  any  better  than  the  best  of  our  native 
kinds.  The  Utah  hybrid  cherry  somewhat  resembles  this  but  has 
a  more  erect  habit.  A  quite  limited  experience  seems  to  show  it  is 
much  inferior  to  our  best  native  kinds. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


BULLBERRY,  OR  BUFFALOBERRY. 


>ULLBERRY,  or  BUFFALO-BERRY   (Shepherdia    argentea). 
This  plant  is  found  abundantly  along  the  river  banks   and 
coulees  of  the  Dakotas,  Montana, Wyoming  and  Idaho,  though 
but  sparingly,  if  at  all,  in  Minnesota  or  the  more  eastern  and  cen- 
tral states,  yet  it  grows  freely  and  fruits  abundantly  in  all  the 
northern  states.     (Fig.  47.) 


FIG.  47.— Foliage  and  fruit  of  Buffalo-berry;  one-half  natural  size. 
A,  fruit  natural  size. 

Description.— A  small  tree  or  shrub  with  light  colored  foli- 
age and  young  growth  and  opposite  leaves.  The  flowers  and  fruit 
are  clustered  near  the  base  of  the  small  branchlets  on  spurs  on 
very  short  stems.  The  plants  are  dkecious,  i.  e.,  one  has  pistillate 
and  the  other  staminate  flowers,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  have 
both  kinds  near  together  in  order  to  get  fruit.  The  flowers  appear 
68 


THE    BUFFALO  BERKY. 


very  early  in  the  spring  before  the  leaves,  and  are  small  and  in- 
conspicuous. The  fruit  is  produced  in  great  abundance— often  so 
thickly  as  to  conceal  the  branches  on  which  it  grows,— and  when 

ripe  gives  a  scarlet 
appearance  to  the 
whole  plant.  Occa- 
sional plants  have 
yellow  fruit.  It  is 
about  the  size  of  red 
currants,  and  con- 
tains one  oval,  quite 
large  seed.  The 
quality  is  very  good, 
even  of  the  best.  It 
makes  a  fine  jelly, 
but  on  account  of 
the  large  seeds  it  is 
not  so  desirable  for 
a  sauce  as  red  cur- 
rants, and  it  is 
doubtful  if  it  will 
ever  be  popular  for 
fruit  where  the  red 
currant  is  product- 
ive and  reliable;  but  it  is  an  elegant  ornamental  shrub,  and  it  will 
probably  be  used  to  quite  an  extent  for  this  purpose.  (Fig.  48.) 

Propagation.— This  plant  suckers  readily  if  the  roots  are 
cut,  but  it  is  generally  grown  from  seed,  which  germinate  readily 
if  not  allowed  to  dry  and  is  winter  covered  witti  earth  and  sown  in 
the  spring.  An  easy  way  to  winter  it  is  to  cover  the  seed  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground  with  an  inverted  sod. 


FIG  48.— Flowers  of  Buffalo-ben  y.     (a)  Pistillate 
flowers;  (b)   Stairdnate  flowers.    About  natural 

size. 


CHAPTER.    IX. 


RUSSIAN  MULBERRY. 


USSIAN  MULBERRY  (Morus  Tartarica).  The  mulberries 
commonly  grown  in  the  eastern  and  central  states  are  not 
hardy  in  this  section,  but  that  introduced  from  Russia  under 
the  above  name  is  very  hardy  over  much  of  the  Northwest.  The 
Menonites  of  Nebraska  were  the  first  to  introduce  it  into  this  coun- 
try, and  they  grew  it  from  imported  seed.  It  makes  a  small  tree, 
but  is  much  better 
adapted  to  being 
grown  in  the  form 
of  a  hedge  or  wind- 
break. In  this  form 
it  will  often  attain 
the  height  of  twenty 
feet  and  become 
very  close  and  pret- 
ty if  given  an  occa- 
sional pruning.  It 
is  of  very  rapid 
growth.  (Fig.  49  ) 

Hardiness.— It 
is  very  hardy  in 
Southern  Minnesota 
and  Southern  Dako- 
ta, and  even  north 
to  the  latitude  of  St. 
Paul  it  stands  fairly 
well.  Occasionally 
in  very  severe  win- 
ters it  will  lose  a 
part  of  its  new 
growth,  but  it  quick- 
ly outgrows  any  in- 
jury and  it  is  less  liable  to  winter-kill  when  old  than  when  young-. 
70 


FIG.  49  —Russian  Mulberry,  showing  foliage 
and  fruit,  reduced  about  one  half  natural 
size,  (a),  Fruit  natural  size 


RUSSIAN     MULBERRY.  71 

Its  Fruit.— With  very  few  exceptions  all  the  trees  of  this  now 
growing  in  this  country  have  been  propagated  from  seed,  and  as 
with  most  other  fruits,  not  one  seedling  in  five  hundred  produces 
fruit  of  value.  Most  seedlings  have  very  small  fruit,  while  others 
are  staminate  and  have  no  fruit  at  all.  Quite  frequently  some 
trees  will  bear  fruit  as  large  as  a  medium-sized  blackberry,  and 
occasionally  considerably  larger.  The  quality  of  the  fruit  varies 
nearly  as  much  as  the  size  of  the  berries ;  some  being  insipid  and 
even  unpleasant,  while  others  are  sweet  and  agreeable,  but  like  all 
mulberries,  they  lack  high  quality.  They  are  quite  soft  when  ripe 
and  quickly  fall  to  the  ground,  which  should  be  kept  smooth  so 
that  they  may  be  readily  gathered.  It  is  at  its  best  just  as  it  falls 
from  the  tree.  It  generally  commences  to  ripen  just  before  the 
first  currants,  and  continues  ripening  for  a  week  or  more.  It  gen- 
erally resembles  the  blackberry  in  appearance,  but  the  fruit  of 
some  seedlings  is  nearly  white  in  color,  though  the  latter  are  sel- 
dom, if  ever,  as  good  eating  as  the  black.  The  age  at  which  plants 
commence  to  produce  fruit  varies  greatly,  but  when  five  or  six 
years  old  they  may  be  expected  to  commence  fruiting,  and  as  they 
grow  older  their  fruitf ulness  increases.  As  a  market  fruit  it  prob- 
ably has  no  value,  but  a  few  trees  should  be  in  every  garden. 
Children  generally  relish  the  fruit,  and  the  birds  let  other  fruit 
alone  to  feed  on  it=  It  is  also  used  for  sauce  and  pies,  but  for  this 
purpose  something  should  be  added  to  it  for  flavor. 

Propagation.— The  seed  grows  readily  if  sown  as  soon  as 
ripe.  For  this  purpose  the  berries  may  be  crushed  in  dry  sand 
and  sown  with  it  in  a  rather  moist,  somewhat  shady  situation.  In 
two  years  the  seedlings  may  be  transplanted  to  the  permanent 
location,  but  these  vary  much  in  their  productiveness,  and  while 
for  a  wind-break  they  many  answer  as  well  as  any,  yet  when 
plants  are  wanted  for  fruit  they  should  be  grown  from  cuttings  or 
layers  of  the  best  kinds,  or  by  grafting  on  seedling  stocks.  For 
this  purpose  the  cuttings  should  be  made  in  the  fall,  about  twelve 
inches  long  of  the  old  wood,  and  be  deeply  planted  in  rich  land, 
with  not  more  than  two  buds  above  the  surface.  The  branches 
root  easily  wnen  layered,  and  if  the  earth  is  drawn  up  around  the 
sprouts  until  they  root  they  make  good  plants. 

Varieties.— There  are  no  named  kinds  offered  by  nurserymen, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  depend  on  chance  seedlings.  However,  if 
any  large  wind- creak  is  looked  over  in  the  fruiting  season  one  or 
more  trees  can  generally  be  picked  out  that  bear  fruit  of  exceptional 
value,  and  such  may  readily  be  increased.  The  flowers  are  of  two 
kinds;  sometimes  both  staminate  (male)  and  pistillate  (female) 
are  on  one  tree,  and  sometimes  a  single  tree  is  limited  to  one  sex. 
On  this  account  some  care  is  necessary  in  selecting  a  variety  to  get 
one  with  both  kinds  of  flowers,  or  else  plant  the  pistillate  kind 
near  a  tree  having  staminate  flowers. 


CHAPTER    X. 


THE    APPLE. 


HE  APPLE  is  a  native  of  Northern  Europe  and  Asia.  Its 
botanical  name  is  Pyrus  mains.  The  crab-apples  have  de- 
scended from  the  wild  Pyrus  baccata  of  Siberia.  These  two 
species  readily  hybridize,  and  there  are  quite  a  number  of  varieties 
of  the  apple  in  cultivation  that  show  the  characteristics  of  both 
species.  The  American  native  crab-apple  (Pyrus  coroiMrid),  so 
abundant  in  some  sections,  seems  to  be  poorl  y  adapted  to  cultiva- 
tion. It  often  blights  badly  in  its  wild  state,  and  when  exposed  in 
the  orchard  is  not  nearly  as  hardy  as  the  hardier  kinds  of  culti- 
vated crab-apples.  There  is,  however,  one  variety  (the  Soulard) 
belonging  to  this  species,  that  is  cultivated  to  some  extent. 

This  is  the  most  ancient  and  also  the  most  highly  esteemed  and 
valuable  of  cultivated  fruits.  It  reaches  its  highest  development 
in  tree  and  fruit  in  cold  climates,  yet  in  extremely  cold  situations 
it  seems  to  be  somewhat  beyond  its  limit  and  to  require  special 
care  to  make  it  profitable.  Many  of  the  failures  which  have 
attended  the  planting  of  apple  trees  in  the  northwestern  states 
need  not  be  repeated  if  the  subject  is  given  careful  study  before 
new  plantings  are  put  out.  It  is  far  better  that  one  should  be  en- 
tirely ignorant  of  the  subject,  but  come  to  it  with  a  desire  and  in- 
tention to  learn  every  detail,  than  that  he  should  undertake  it  with 
the  belief  that  his  experience  in  Eastern  orchard  methods  and  vari- 
eties is  sufficient  to  guide  him  in  similar  work  here.  The  methods 
and  varieties  adapted  to  Eastern  and  Southern  orchards  do  not 
hold  well  here,  and  the  following  out  of  such  methods,  and  the  use 
of  such  varieties  as  are  used  there,  has  generally  led  to  failure  and 
discouragement,  and  to  the  often  heard  remark  that  "apples  can- 
not be  successfully  grown  here." 

Among  those  who  have  given  this  matter  the  most  careful 
attention  there  is  a  well  grounded  belief  that  this  section  will 
eventually  raise  all  the  apples  that  can  be  used  within  its  borders, 
and  that  too  of  varieties  adapted  to  every  season.  The  season  of 
1892  saw  the  markets  here  abundadtly  supplied  with  the  Duchess 
of  Oldenburgh  apple,  and  many  car-loads  of  it  were  shipped  to 
72 


THE  APPLE.  73 

adjoining  states.  The  large  crop  in  that  year  resulted  from  its 
being  a  favorable  season,  and  also  from  the  fact  that  after  the 
severe  seasons  of  some  ten  years  previous,  which  proved  the  great 
value  of  the  Duchess  of  Oldenburgh,  it  was  largely  planted,  and 
these  plantings  had  just  commenced  to  come  into  heavy  bearing 
condition  in  1892.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  several 
other  varieties  will  prove  even  more  widely  adapted  to  general  cul- 
tivation here  than  the  Duchess  of  Oldenburgh. 

In  this  section  apple  trees  are  not  so  long  lived  as  in  a  some- 
what milder  climate,  but  they  come  into  bearing  much  earlier  and 
are  very  productive.  The  profits  from  properly  planted  orchards 
here  are  far  in  excess  of  those  realized  from  Eastern  orchards,  and 
orcharding  in  some  parts  of  this  section  offers  a  good  field  for  prof- 
itable investment.  The  reason  for  this  is  found  largely  in  the 
superior  quality,  higher  color  and  generally  brighter  appearance  of 
our  fruit*  and  the  proximity  to  good  markets,  together  with  the 
fact  that  our  summer  and  autumn  varieties  do  not  come  into  mar- 
ket until  the  great  rush  of  early  Southern  shipments  has  ceased 
and  the  winter  kinds  have  not  commenced  to  come  in. 

Locations  Especially  Adapted  to  Orcharding.— While 
apples  will  undoubtedly  be  grown  in  the  near  future  to  some  ex- 
tent over  the  whole  of  this  section,  yet  at  present  the  facts  will 
only  warrant  their  being  planted  on  a  commercial  scale,  in  favor- 
able locations  south  of  the  latitude  of  St.  Paul,  and  in  other  loca- 
tions where  the  climate  may  be  much  equalized  by  bodies  of  water 
and  other  modifying  conditions.  There  are  many  excellent  loca- 
tions for  orchards  on  the  high  rolling  land  and  admirable  soils  in 
this  section. 

Location  of  the  Apple  Orchard.— The  best  location  for 
an  apple  orchard  is  on  high  noithern  slopes,  tipping  down  to  the 
northeast,  and  the  steeper  the  slope  the  better,  providing  it  does 
not  interfere  with  cultivation.  The  northern  slope  is  preferred 
because  it  is  least  affected  by  drouth,  by  sudden  changes  in  temper- 
ature, and  by  drying  winds,  which  very  uniformly  come  from  the 
south.  However,  some  excellent  orchards  in  the  Northwest  are 
located  on  southern  slopes.  It  is  important  to  plant  apple  trees  on 
the  highest  land  available.  If  the  elevation  is  not  more  than  ten 
feet  above  the  general  level  of  the  adjacent  land  it  is  a  great  ad- 
vantage in  furnishing  air,  drainage,  equalizing  the  temperature  in 
summer  and  lessening  the  danger  from  frost  in  the  blossoming 
period. 

The  Worst  Location  for  an  Orchard  is  what  is  called  a 
warm,  sheltered  spot,  where  the  sun  has  free  access  and  the  winds 
are  entirely  shut  off.  Into  such  a|Jplace  the  cold  air  from  surround- 
ing higher  elevations  settles  at  night,  and  while  it  is  the  hottest 
place  during  the  day,  it  is  the  coldest  at  night.  Blight  and  winter 
killing  are  apt  to  be  abundant  in  such  places.  In  some  sections, — 
most  generally  those  protected  by  water,  forests  or  wooded  hills — 
but  little  if  any  difference  is  to  be  noticed  in  the  growth  and  pro- 


74  THE   APPLE 

ductiveness  of  trees  on  the  various  exposures,  while  in  exposed 
places  this  difference  is  very  marked. 

Wind-breaks. — A  free  circulation  of  air  is  very  desirable  in 
an  orchard,  and  full  exposure  is  better  than  shutting  in  too  closely, 
yet  in  a  full  exposure  is  not  found  the  best  condition  for  a  success- 
ful orchard.  It  should  be  surrounded  with  wind-breaks  on  the  ex- 
posed sides,  sufficient  to  somewhat  break  the  force  of  the  wind, 
but  not  heavy  enough  to  prevent  a  good  circulation  of  air  through 
the  orchard  at  any  time.  It  is  much  ;more  important  to  have  a 
wind-break  on  the  southland  west  sides  of  an  orchard,  than  on  the 
north  or  east,  for  it  is  from  the  former  directions  that  come  the 
most  injurious  winds. 

The  Liand  Best  Adapted  to  the  Growth  of  Apples  in 
this  section  is  what  might  be  called  a  deep,  open,  clayey  loam, 
that  is  well  drained,  either  naturally  or  artificially,  and  does  not 
suffer  severely  from  drouth  or  excess  of  water.  But  the  apple 
may  be  grown  successfully  on  almost  any  soil,  even  on  that  which 
is  dry  and  gravelly ;  but  the  orchard  requires  more  careful  manage- 
ment in  severe  situations  than  in  those  that  are  favorable. 

The  land  must  be  retentive  and  rich  in  plant  food,  for  it  is  im- 
possible to  raise  good  fruit  on  poor  soil.  Sufficient  moisture  can 
generally  be  secured  by  heavy  mulching,  and  the  newer  soils  of 
this  section  are  generally  rich  enough  for  apples  without  manur- 
ing ;  indeed,  heavy,  black  prairie  loam  is  generally  so  rich  in  plant 
food  that  it  stimulates  in  most  varieties  of  apples  a  late  growth, 
especially  when  the  autumn  is  warm  and  moist,  and  only  the 
hard'est  kinds,  isuch  as  do  not  make  a  late  growth  in  autumn, 
should  be  planted  in  such  locations. 

If  the  sub-soil  is  such  very  hard  clay  that  the  roots  can  scarce- 
ly penetrate,  if  at  all,  very  deep  plowing  should  be  resorted  to ; 
but  as  this  cannot  go  deep  enough  to  give  the  roots  much  of  a 
chance  in  very  hard,  dry  clays,  the  holes  should  be  dug  very  deep. 
A  better  way  than  digging  holes  into  such  hard  pan  is  to  explode  a 
medium  charge  of  dynamite  in  it,  which  will  so  loosen  it  that 
the  roots  can  penetrate.  In  some  locations  such  treatment  will 
make  all  the  difference  between  success  and  failure. 

Trees  should  be  selected  that  are  vigorous  and  healthy,  with 
plenty  of  strong  roots  (Fig.  50).  It  is  really  of  little  importance 
as  to  the  size  or  form  of  the  top  of  a  tree,  providing  it  has  good 
roots,  and  is  healthy  and  free  from  blemishes ;  for  if  vigorous  the 
form  of  the  top  may  be  readily  changed.  The  best  trees  are  those 
not  over  four  years  old,  that  have  made  moderate  and  not  a  rapid 
growth  in  the  nursery.  Three-year-old  trees,  of  most  varieties, 
are  generally  the  best  to  set.  Two-year-old  trees  do  very  well, 
and  are  often  as  good  as  any.  Those  one  year  old  are  too  small  to 
conveniently  cultivate  around  in  the  field,  and  are  better  off  in  the 
nursery  for  another  year. 

Seedlings. — Apple  seed  grows  readily  and  generally  forms 
plants  about  twelve i  inches  high,  with  a  tap-root  of  about  the 


THE   APPLE. 


75 


same  length,  the  first  season.  The  seed  does  not  re-produce  in 
quality  the  fruit  it  was  taken  from,  and  probably  not  one  seedling 
in  a  thousand  would  be  as  good  as  any  of  the  better  cultivated 
kinds.  Seedlings,  however,  are  raised  in  large  quantities,  to  be 
used  in  grafting,  to  increase  the  named  varieties.  Apple  seed  is 
generally  obtained  by  washing  out  the  pomace  from  cider  mills. 
The  seeds  are  heavier  than  the  pulp  and  are  readily  separated 
from  it  by  water.  It  is  best  not  to  allow  the  seed  to  get  very  dry, 
and  on  this  account  some  growers  prefer  to  sow  it  in  the  fall  s  hort- 
ly  after  cleaning,  while  others  mix  it  with  sand  and  keep  it  buried 
in  the  ground  until  spring.  If  the  seed  gets  very  dry  it  often  fails 


FIG.  50.— (A)  Tree  with  very  poor  roots,  which  were  spoiled  by  being  cut  off 
too  short  in  digging.    A  common  form. 

(B)  A  well  rooted  tree  ivith  all  the  roots  coming  from  the  scion.     The  origi- 
nal root  in  which,  the  scion  was  set  has  been  broken  off.    An  uncommon 
form. 

( C)  A  well  rooted  tree  with  fibrous  roots.    Such  roots  grow  well  if  carefully 
spread  out  when  planted.    An  uncommon  form. 

(D)  A  well  rooted  tree  properly  dug,  leaving  some  roots  from  the  scion.    A 
common  form. 


76  THE   APPLE. 

to  start,  or  does  not  start  for  one  year,  unless  scalded  or  mixed 
with  moist  sand  and  allowed  to  freeze  and  thaw  a  few  times.  In 
a  small  way  the  seed  may  be  kept  mixed  with  sand  and  buried  in  a 
box  in  the  ground  until  spring,  when  it  should  be  put  in  a  warm 
place  until  it  starts  into  growth  a  little.  It  should  then  be  sown  in 
drills  three  inches  deep  and  about  three  feet  apart,  in  rich,  warm 
soil,  sowing  about  twenty  seeds  to  the  foot 

Boot-grafted  Trees  should  always  be  preferred  to  those 
that  are  budded,  for  this  section,  unless  in  the  case  of  hardy  trees 
that  are  already  once  root-grafted,  and  are  budded  to  change  the 
bearing  qualities,  when  budding  is  as  good  as  grafting.  The  objec- 
tion to  budded  trees  is  not  to  the  method  of  propagation,  but  from 
the  fact  that  the  buds  must  be  inserted  above  the  ground  into  a 
seedling  root,  which  seedling  is  of  doubtful  hardiness,  and  is  per 
haps  quite  tender;  yet  is  partly  exposed  above  ground,  where  it  is 
liable  to  fail  at  any  time.  Root-grafted  trees  have  the  graft  below- 
ground  and  send  out  roots  from  above  the  graft,  which  increases 
the  hardiness  of  the  trees.  Quite  frequently  the  roots  of  a  budded 
or  grafted  tree  will  be  tender  and  kill  out,  while  the  top  is  healthy 
and  sound ;  consequently  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  roots  as  hardy 
as  the  top.  But  as  this  is  not  always  practicable  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  get  the  hardiest  roots  obtainable.  In  more 
favorable  locations  budded  trees  may  be  just  as  desirable  as  those 
that  are  root-grafted .  The  kind  of  root-graft,  whether  with  whole 
or  piece  roots,  makes  but  little  difference  to  the  ordinary  planter, 
who  should  look  especially  to  getting  good  trees,  when.he  should 
be  careful  to  plant  the  graft  well  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Planting. — The  land  should  be  in  as  good  condition  as  is  re- 
quired for  corn.  The  work  of  planting  will  be  greatly  facilitated 
if  the  land  is  furrowed  out  both  ways  with  a  large  plow,  and  the 
trees  set  at  the  intersections.  If  the  trees  must  be  set  in  sod,  a 
hole  five  feet  in  diameter  should  be  dug  for  each  tree ;  no  grass 
should  be  allowed  to  grow  in  this  space,  and  it  should  be  heavily 
mulched.  In  setting  the  trees  the  holes  should  be  made  large 
enough  to  take  in  all  the  roots  without  crowding.  If  it  is  neces- 
sary to  set  trees  into  the  sub-soil,  and  it  often  is,  then  in  digging 
the  holes  the  top-soil  should  be  kept  separate  from  the  sub-soil 
and  be  put  back  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole  so  as  to  be  in  contact 
with  the  roots.  The  roots  should  be  evenly  spread  out  in  the  hole 
and  the  fine  top-soil  carefully  worked  among  them  so  as  not  to 
leave  any  air  spaces  between  or  under  them.  If  the  soil  is  dry  it 
can  hardly  be  made  too  solid  around  the  roots.  If  wet  but  little 
pressure  should  be  used. 

The  Time  to  Plant.— In  the  north  apple  trees  should  never 
be  set  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  nor  should  they  be  dug  from  the  nur- 
sery rows  in  the  spring,  as  they  are  very  liable  to  be  weakened ;  if 
not  seriously  injured  by  the  winter  if  left  exposed.  They  should 
be  dug  in  the  autumn  and  buried  root  and  branch— "heeled  in"-  in 
dry  soil  until  spring,  or  else  be  carried  over  the  winter  in  a  cold 


THE  APPLE.  77 

cellar,  with  their  roots  buried  in  soil.  As  few  cellars  are  fit  for 
this  purpose  it  is  generally  safer  to  bury  them  outside.  As  a  rule 
it  is  best  for  planters  to  get  their  trees  in  the  fall,  as  they  are  then 
more  certain  to  get  good  stock,  and  there  is  no  delay  in  waiting  for 
them  to  come  in  the  spring.  The  trees  may  be  set  as  soon  as  the 
soil  works  easily  in  the  spring,  and  until  the  trees  break  into  leaf. 
As  a  rule  moderately  early  planting  gives  the  best  results,  but  trees 
should  never  be  set  in  wet,  sticky  soil. 

Heeling  In  is  a  term  used  to  designate  the  temporary  bury- 
ing of  the  roots  of  trees  or  plants  in  earth  or  other  material.  If  the 
trees  are  to  be  moved  again  in  a  few  days  a  very  light  covering 
will  be  sufficient ;  but  if  they  are  to  remain  several  weeks  much 
care  should  be  taken  to  do  the  work  well.  To  begin  with,  select  a 
dry,  mellow  piece  of  ground ;  dig  a  wide  trench,  put  in  the  trees— 
a  few  at  a  time— either  in  an  erect  or  sloping  position,  and  cover 
them  so  deep  and  firm  that  they  cannot  dry  out.  If  apple  or  other 
somewhat  tender  trees  are  to  remain  heeled  in  over  winter  it  will 
be  found  best  to  commence  by  digging  a  trench  about  two  feet  deep 


FIG.  51.—  Various  stages  of  1he  opfrarton.    A,  Row  of  trees  with  roots 
covered;  B,  a  row  bent  down  and  the  tops  covered  with  earth  at  C. 

and  three  feet  wide  in  dry  land,  where  no  water  will  stand  in  the 
trenches ;  put  in  a  layer  of  trees  sloping ;  cover  the  roots  with  a 
thin  layer  of  fine,  mellow  earth,  filling  in  carefully  and  solid  all  the 
interstices  among  the  roots  and  stems ;  continue  thus  until  all  the 
trees  are  in,  when  the  tops  and  all  should  be  bent  down  to  the 
ground  and  entirely  covered  with  about  six  inches  of  earth.  Fig- 
ure 51  shows  the  various  stages  of  the  operation.  (A,  Row  of  trees 
with  roots  covered;  B,  A  row  bent  down  and  the  tops  covered 
with  earth  at  (7.)  The  stems  and  all  should  be  completely  covered 
when  the  work  is  finished. 

Depth  to  Plant.— In  the  best  locations  the  trees  should  be  set 
about  four  inches  deeper  than  they  grew  in  the  nursery.  In  very 
dry,  light  soil  they  may  be  put  twelve  inches  deeper  than  they 
naturally  grew.  On  steep  hillsides  they  must  be  set  much  deeper, 
or  they  will  come  too  near  the  surface  owing  to  the  slope  of  the 
land.  One  of  the  most  important  objects  secured  by  deep  planting 


78  THE   APPLE. 

is  the  sending  out  of  roots  from  the  scion,  for  when  trees  are  well 
rooted  from  the  scion  they  are  generally  much  improved  in  har- 
diness. However,  in  heavy  retentive  soil  deep  planting  is  not 
desirable. 

Distance  Apart  to  Plant.— Apple  trees  in  cold  regions 
should  be  set  quite  close  to  one  another.  In  favorable  locations 
they  should  be  set  further  apart  than  when  the  conditions  are  very 
severe.  Most  varieties  do  best  when  not  over  sixteen  feet  apart ; 
but  upright  growing  kinds  should  be  set  closer.  The  Duchess  of 

Oldenburgh  does  very  well 

North.  in  severe   locations   when 

*  *  *  *  *       set  not  over   twelve   feet 

apart  each  way.   The  trees 

#  #  #  should    be   set   so    as    to 

"break  joints",  north  and 
south— that  is,  the  trees  in 

*  *       one  row  should  be  set  op- 

posite the  vacancies  in  the 

#  *  #  #  next.    If  the  rows  run 

northeast  and  southwest 
the  trees  will   shade   one 
*       another  on  the  southwest 
South.  side,  which  is  most  liable 

FIG.  52.—  Asterisks  showing  desirable  ar-        to    injury    from    the    sun. 
rangement  of  (he  trees  in  the  orchard.  Figure    52   shows    the  ar- 

rangement of  the  trees. 

Cultivation.— Young  orchards  should  be  cultivated  in  some 
hoed  crop  that  does  not  necessitate  -the  working  of  the  soil  in 
autumn,  but  will  keep  the  land  well  worked  in  the  early  summer. 
For  this  purpose  corn,  early  potatoes  or  squash  are  good  crops. 
Do  not  sow  the  ordinary  small  grains  in  orchards.  Buckwheat, 
however,  seems  to  be  an  exception  to  this  rule,  and  on  account  of 
its  dense  shade  is  a  very  good  crop  for  this  purpose.  After  the 
trees  begin  to  bear  it  is  often  a  good  plan  to  seed  the  land  to  clover, 
which  should  be  broken  up  occasionally.  The  trees  should  be  well 
mulched,  and  if  they  do  not  make  a  satisfactory  growth  should  be 
well  manured.  When  an  orchard  becomes  "sod  bound"  nothing 
will  do  it  more  good  than  a  drove  of  hogs  sufficient  to  root  up  all 
the  sod,  but  they  must  not  be  allowed  to  gnaw  the  trees.  Besides 
breaking  up  the  sod  the  hogs  are  very  beneficial  by  destroying 
many  kinds  of  insects. 

Forming  the  Tree.— Whatever  may  be  the  shape  of  the 
tree  when  it  is  received  from  the  nursery,  it  will  need  careful 
attention  in  the  orchard.  The  question  whether  to  grow  trees  with 
a  long  or  a  short  trunk,  is  a  much  disputed  one ;  but  it  may  be  laid 
down  as  a  general  rule  that  in  favorable  locations  the  trunks  of  the 
hardier  kinds  should  be  free  from  branches  for  fully  three  feet 
from  the  ground,  but  in  such  cases  it  should  have  some  protection. 
In  very  severe  and  exposed  locations,  or  in  the  case  of  somewhat 


THE  APPLE.  <y 

tender  varieties,  it  will  be  better  to  have  the  trees  branch  near  to 
the  ground  (Fig.  53) ,  since  when  so  formed  they  are  hardier  and 
less  exposed  to  the  wind  than  if  they  have  tall  trunks.  There  is  a 
constant  tendency  for  our  trees  to  incline  to  the  northeast,  and  this 
should  be  prevented  so  far  as  possible.  To  do  this  the  growth 
should  be  encouraged  on  the  southwest  side  by  light  summer  prun- 
ing on  the  north  side.  Also,  in  setting  the  trees  they  should  be 
slightly  inclined  to  the  southwest,  and  an  effort  made  to  keep  them 
in  that  position. 


FIG.  53. — A  low-headed  free  with  trunk  boxed.    Form  and  treatment 
adapted  to  severe  locations. 

Pruning.— In  pruning  it  is  well  to  remember  that  pruning  in 
the  summer  checks  growth,  and  pruning  at  suitable  times,  when 
the  tree  is  dormant,  stimulates  growth.  Pruning  apple  trees  just 
as  the  sap  is  starting  in  the  spring  is  a  bad  practice,  and  generally 
results  in  quite  a  portion  of  the  pruned  limb  dying  back  or  being 
seriously  weakened.  The  best  time  to  prune  is  in  June,  as  then 
the  wounds  heal  over  at  once.  But  if  a  very  large  amount  of  wood 
must  be  removed  it  would  be  better  to  cut  it  off  in  October,  or  dur- 


80 


THE  APPLE. 


ing  warm  days  in  March,  before  the  sap  starts,  as  the  removal  of  a 
large  amount  of  foliage  in  June  might  give  a  serious  check  to  the 
tree.  Scions  for  grafting  are  generally  cut  in  November,  before 
severe  weather.  Very  light  pruning  may  be  done  safely  at  almost 
any  time,  except  as  noted  above.  If  the  work  of  pruning  is  pro- 
perly attended  to  there  will  be  no  need  of  heavy  pruning,  and  gen- 
erally a  little  pinching  or  rubbing  off  of  the  growth  in  summer  is 
sufficient.  In  a  northern  climate  it  is  better  not  to  prune  at  all 
than  to  prune  too  much,  and  apple  trees  only  need  to  have  inter- 
locking and  straggling  branches  removed  or  shortened.  They  need 
all  their  wood  for  the  protection  it  affords.  All  wounds  over  one- 
half  inch  in  diameter  should  be  covered  with  grafting  wax. 

When  trees  are  received  they  should  have  all  broken  or  bruised 
roots  removed,  and  the  ends  of  all  roots  cut  off  smooth.  The  top, 
too,  should  be  cut  back  about  one-half  or  more  of  its  new  growth  to 
correspond  to  the  loss  of  roots.  Some  varieties— the  Wealthy,  for 
instance— will  sometimes  kill  back  severely  and  then  sprout  from 
the  roots.  In  such  a  case  the  sprouts  should  be  encouraged  to 
make  a  new  tree,  which  they  will  do  very  quickly  if  given  a  little 
care,  and  then  they  are  often  more  productive  than  ever. 

Injured  Trees.—  One  of  the  most  common  forms  of  injury  to 
trees  is  girdling  by  mice  or  rabbits.  If  the  girdling  is  not  com- 
plete, even  though  only  a  small  part  of  the  inner  bark  extends 
across  the  wound,  the  best  treatment  is  to  bank  up  around  it  with 
earth,  and  this  is  good  treatment  for  any  wound.  If  injury  of  any 
kind  is  so  far  from  the  ground  that  banking  up  is  impracticable, 
the  wound  should  be  covered  with  grafting  wax  and  cloth,  or  with 
clay  or  cow  manure,  so  as  to  exclude  the  air.  When  large  wounds 
are  left  exposed  they  do  not  heal  readily,  and  often  the  wood  sea- 
sons through  and  permanent  injury  results.  Covering  the  wounds 
with  heavy  paper,  even  without  other  protection,  aids  very  much 


FIG.  54.— Girdled  tree  with  wound  bridged  orer.     A,  a  girdled  trunk. 
B,  scions  inserted;  C,  method  of  inserting  scions. 

in  the  healing  process.  Another  way  of  saving  girdled  trees  is  to 
wait  until  the  bark  peels  freely  and  then  spring  in  scions  long 
enough  to  connect  the  sound  inside  bark  above  and  below  the  in- 
jury. The  ends  of  loner  scions  are  cut  all  on  one  side  and  shoved 
under  the  bark  as  in  budding  (Fig.  54).  The  tree  eagerly  seizes 


THE  APPLE.  81 

upon  this  opportunity  for  making  a  connection  between  the  root 
and  top  in  the  cambium  layer,  and  the  scions  increase  in  size  until 
finally  they  close  up  and  make  a  covering  as  good  as  the  original 
bark. 

Mulching.— The  advantage  of  a  mulch  around  trees  is  not 
generally  appreciated.  It  checks  evaporation  and  prevents  the 
running  off  of  water  which  allows  it  to  soak  into  the  land.  It 
helps  to  equalize  the  moisture  in  the  soil  throughout  the  growing 
season,  and  prevents  root-killing  in  winter.  It  is  of  the  greatest 
assistance  in  rather  dry  locations,  where  its  use  makes  success 
possible  with  many  varieties  that  otherwise  would  be  complete 
failures.  In  almost  any  soil  in  the  Northwest  the  chances  of  trees 
living  and  doing  well  would  be  increased  by  the  use  of  a  mulch 
around  them,  but  this  is  especially  true  of  sandy  land  and  southern 
exposures.  It  is  generally  best  to  cultivate  the  land  around  trees 
when  they  are  small ;  but  if  they  are  set  on  sod  land,  or  after  they 
begin  to  bear,  or  if  they  suffer  from  drouth,  they  should  be  heavily 
mulched  at  once,  and  this  should  be  renewed  as  often  as  necessary, 
to  keep  a  covering  five  or  six  inches  in  depth  on  the  ground  at  all 
times  extending  at  least  four  feet  on  all  sides  from  the  tree,  and 
in  the  case  of  larger  trees  extending  out  as  far  as  the  branches. 
This  mulch  may  consist  of  any  litter,  straw,  bagasse,  hardwood 
sawdust,  brush,  weeds  and  grape  trimmings,  and  even  coal  ashes 
are  good  for  this  purpose. 

Manuring. — Young  orchards  are  sometimes  injured  by  too 
much  man-ire,  which  stimulates  a  late  autumn  growth  that  may  so 
weaken  the  tree  that  it  may  be  winterkilled.  But  if  crops  are 
grown  in  an  orchard  enough  manure  must  be  added  to  put  back  the 
plant  food  carried  off  in  the  crop.  After  trees  begin  to  bear  fruit 
they  need  manuring,  and  without  it  they  are  very  liable  to  run  out. 
All  manures  for  orchards  should  be  applied  to  the  land  during  the 
time  between  the  fall  of  the  leaves  in  the  autumn  and  their  appear- 
ance again  in  the  spring.  In  case  the  manure  is* well- rotted  it 
should  be  applied  in  the  spring.  Barnyard  manure  is  as  good  as 
anything  for  this  purpose.  Some  soils,  however,  will  maintain 
their  fertility  without  manure,  providing  a  crop  of  clover  is  plowed 
in  every  few  years. 

Sunscald.— This  is  the  name  given  to  a  condition  of  trees 
when  the  bark  becomes  dead  on  the  southern  or  southwest  sides  of 
trees  (Pig.  55) .  This  is  a  very  serious  cause  of  loss  of  trees  in 
high  latitudes,  and  all  trees  should  be  protected  against  it.  It  is 
probably  due  to  the  action  of  the  sun  in  starting  the  growth  on  the 
southwest  side  of  the  trees  and  then  being  suddenly  checked  by 
the  cold.  It  is  most  liable  to  occur  in  the  latter  part  of  winter. 
Some  varieties  are  much  more  liable  to  this  trouble  than  others. 
Trees  that  incline  to  the  northwest,  so  that  the  sun's  rays  fall  di- 
rectly on  the  trunk,  are  very  liable  to  it.  If  trees  are  planted  and 
kept  inclined  to  the  southwest  until  the  t;  anches  shade  the  trunk, 
they  will  not  be  affected.  Anything  that  shades  the  trunk  pre- 


THE  APPLE. 


vents  this  trouble,  and  various  means  are  employed  to  that  end. 
Sometimes  the  trunk  is  covered  with  hay,  straw,  corn-stalks,  bur- 
lap or  paper,  wire  netting  or  laths  wired  together,  or  it  may  be 
shaded  by  a  board  set  up  on  the  southwest  side.  All  these  are  good 
and  answer  the  purpose,  and  many  of  them  protect  from  mice, 
rabbits,  and  flat-head  borers  as  well,  if  properly  attended  to ;  but 
one  of  the  best  is  the  lath  screen,  which  is  easily  made,  is  cheap, 
durable  and  satisfactory. 


FIG.  Sb.— 

a,  a,  a,  dead  wood. 


FIG   56.— Lo/h  screen  in 
place  around  tree. 


The  lath  screen  protector  is  shown  in  Fig.  56.  It  is  easily  ard 
quickly  made,  but  whether  it  will  be  cheaper  to  use  than  wood 
Yeneers  will  depend  on  circumstances.  Each  of  these  methods  of 
protection  secures  immunity  from  sunscaJd,  mice,  rabbits  and  the 
flat-head  borer  to  the  part  they  cover,  and  also  protect  the  bark 
from  whiffle- trees.  Six  or  seven  common  laths  and  three  No.  18 


THE   APPLE. 


wires  are  necessary  to  make  the  lath  screens.  The  laths  are  left 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  apart,  and  the  wire  is  simply  crossed  between 
the  laths  and  not  twisted.  Methods  of  making  it  will  readily  sug- 
gest themselves.  It  may  be  made  on  a  common  work-bench  by  the 
device  shown  in  Fig.  57,  which  is  from  an  article  by  Prof.  Goff,  in 
the  Wisconsin  Horticultural  Report  for  1891.  Ay  A,  A  represent 
nails  in  the  bench  to  which  are  attached  the  wires.  B,  the  first 

lath  put  between'  the 
wires  and  attached  to 
the  spring  stick,  C, 
which  holds  the  wires 
taut  while  the  other 
laths  are  inserted  from 
the  end,  and  these  are 
always  put  under  the 
lower  and  over  the  up- 
per wires,  thus  crossing 
the  wires.  E  show  the 


FIG.  57. — Showing  method  of  making  lath 
screen. 


end  of  spring  stick  and  part  of  first  lath  held  together  with  a 
hooked  wire.  D  shows  lath  screen  partly  made.  The  laths  should 
be  long  enough  to  reach  nearly  to  the  lower  branches  of  the  trees. 
A  bunch  of  hay  may  be  stuffed  in  at  the  top  to  keep  the  protector 
in  place  and  keep  it  from  rubbing  the  tree.  The  screens  should  be 
left  on  until  the  wires  rust  off.  Tar  or  tarred  paper  should  never 
be  used  in  contact  with  the  bark  of  apple  trees. 

Protection  by  banking  up  the  trunks 
of  young  trees  about  one  foot,  on  the 
approach  of  winter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  58, 
is  sL  good  practice.  It  protects  the  graft 
and  is  a  sufficient  barrier  against  mice, 
unless  there  is  a  deep  fall  of  snow.  This 
is  not  a  very  laborious  matter,  for  about 
three  spadesf  ul  of  soil  is  enough  for  each 
tree.  When  there  is  danger  of  mice 
working  under  the  snow  trod  it  down 
quite  firmly  around  the  trees.  To  guard 
against  mice  and  rabbits  when  not  oth- 
erwise protected,  wash  the  stems  with 
Lhin  whitewash  thickened  with  copperas 
and  sulphur.  If  this  is  washed  off  by 
rains  renew  the  wash  as  often  as  neces-  - 
sary. 

Protecting  the  trunks  by   box-  FIG.  58.— Apple  tree  banked 
ing  them  up  and  then  filling  the  boxes  UP  f°r  winter. 

with  earth,  as  shown  in  Fig.  53,  is  a  method  that  is  well  worthy  of 
being  adopted,  especially  by  those  who  wish  to  grow  apples  in  very 
severe  locations.  Such  treatment  protects  the  trunk  from  sun- 
scald,  mice  and  rabbits,  and  also  from  urying  winds,  severe  cold, 


<J 


84 


THE  APPLE. 


and  from  sudden  freezing  and  thawing,  and  commends  itself  in 
every  way.  The  boxes  may  be  kept  filled  with  soil  all  the  year 
around,  but  care  should  be  taken  that  if  the  practice  is  to  be  dis- 
continued that  they  are  not  taken  off  on  the  approach  of  winter, 
"but  in  the  spring.  In  more  favorable  locations  such  treatment  is 
unnecessary  with  hardy  kinds,  but  even  in  such  places  the  good 
effect  will  be  apparent. 

Top-working.— By  top-working  is  meant  the  grafting  or  bud- 
ding of  a  tree  after  it  is  of  some  considerable  size.  The  term  is 
used  to  distinguish  such  trees  from  those  that  are  root-grafted.  It 
is  here  recommended  for  severe  locations  and  for  somewhat  tender 
kinds,  such  as  the  Wealthy,  which,  besides  being  somewhat  tender 
and  liable  to  sunscald,  is  weak  in  the  stem  and  crotches.  If  this 
variety  is  grafted  on  the  branches  of  the  Virginia  crab,  which  is  a 
very  hardy  sort  with  strong  crotches,  a  tree  is  formed  that  has 
much  of  the  hardiness  of  that  crab,  but  at  the  same  time  bears 
Wealthy  apples.  By  this  method  we  may 
increase  the  hardiness  of  trees  to  a  consid- 
erable degree.  Some  varieties  seem  to  be 
better  adapted  to  one  stock  than  to  another. 
The  Virginia  crab  is  a  stock  that  is  hardy 
in  every  particular,  and  especially  desir- 
able for  top-working.  It  grows  rapidly, 
makes  a  large  tree,  and  will  keep  up  in 
rapidity  of  growth  with  any  of  our  larger 
apples.  But  most  of  the  larger  growing 
crabs  make  good  stocks  for  top-working. 
The  Transcendent  crab  may  be  successfully 
used  for  this  purpose.  When  it  is  intended 
to  grow  an  orchard  by  this  method  the 
stocks  should  be  set  in  the  spring,  to  be 
budded  the  following  August,  or  should  be 
grafted  the  following  spring.  Figure  59 
shows  where  the  grafts  should  be  made.  If 
to  be  budded  the  buds  should  be  inserted  in 
about  the  same  positions  in  the  head  of  the 
tree  as  the  grafts. 

Picking  and  Marketing.— In  order 
to  have  apples  keep  well,  or  command  the 
highest  price,  they  must  be  hand-picked 
before  they  are  fully  ripe  and  handled  very 
carefully.  They  should  never  be  shaken 
from  the  trees,  for  although  they  may  not  FIG.  59  —Top-worked  tree. 
show  the  bruises  at  once,  yet  they  will  a'  a<  a'  9raSt8- 
show  plainly  in  a  few  days,  and  cause  premature  decay.  This  is 
especially  true  of  the  Duchess  of  Oldenburgh,  and  other  varieties 
which,  like  it,  easily  become  spotted.  They  should  be  carefully 
sorted  into  three  grades — best,  second  best,  and  culls.  The  latter 
grade  had  better  be  kept  at  home  and  fed  to  stock,  or  made  into 


THE  APPLE.  85 

vinegar.  If  to  be  shipped  to  a  distance  apples  should  be  packed  in 
clean,  new  barrels,  into  which  they  should  be  pressed  so  firmly 
that  they  cannot  move.  If  packed  loosely  they  are  almost  certain 
to  arrive  in  market  in  a  badly  injured  or  worthless  condition.  A 
regular  press  is  made  for  this  purpose  and  is  sold  by  all  implement 
dealers. 

Some  Important  Things  to  Remember  Are:- 

(1)  If  the  roots  of  trees  are  frozen  out  of  the  ground,   and 
thawed  again  in  contact  with  air,  the  tree  will  probably  die. 

(2)  If  frozen  roots  are  well  buried  before  thawing  at  all  the 
tree  will  be  uninjured. 

(3)  Manure  should  never  be  placed  in  contact  with  the  roots 
of  trees  when  they  are  set,  but  old  pulverized  earth   compost 
answers  well. 

(4)  Trees  that  are  received  in  a  shrivelled  condition  may  gen- 
erally be  revived  by  burying,  tops  and  all,  with  earth  for  a  few 
days. 

(5)  If  trees  are  to  be  watered  in  dry  weather  it  is  very  im- 
portant that  they  have  a  heavy  covering  of  mulch,  otherwise  the 
earth  will  be  crusted  over,  causing  the  water  to  dry  out  rapidly. 

(6)  If  watering  is  commenced  it  should  be  continued  until 
rain  comes,  otherwise  it  may  be  worse  than  no  watering  at  all.    As 
a  rule  heavy  mulching  is  better  than  watering. 

(7)  A  tree  of  small  or  medium  size  that  is  thrifty  is  much  to 
be  preferred,  for  transplanting,  to  one  that  is  very  large,  but 
which  will  be  checked  in  its  growth  by  being  moved. 

Diseases. — BLIGHT.  In  order  to  be  truly  hardy  and  desirable 
for  northern  sections  an  apple  tree  should' be  hardy  against  fire 
blight  as  well  as  the  weather.  This  is  the  blight  that  kills  the 
growing  wood  in  the  summer.  It  is  due  to  the  growth  of  a  very 
small  microscopic  plant  termed  Micrococcus  amylovorus.  It  is  much 
the  same  as  the  germs  of  disease  which  attack  animals.  These 
germs  are  very  light,  are  thrown  off  by  the  plant  and  readily  blow 
about.  They  grow  in  and  destroy  the  tissues  of  the  tree.  It  is  a 
very  insidious  enemy,  and  as  yet  we  know  of  no  method  of  destroy- 
ing it  or  stopping  its  ravages.  Some  varieties,  for  reasons  not 
known,  are  not  subject  to  its  attacks,  while  others  are  only  slightly 
affected  or  only  in  occasional  years.  When  it  appears  the  best 
treatment  is  to  remove  and  burn  all  the  diseased  parts  as  soon  as 
may  be,  cutting  considerably  below  where  the  disease  appears. 
The  only  way  to  avoid  it  is  to  plant  varieties  that  are  not  subject 
to  its  attacks.  In  pruning  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  dis- 
ease may  be  carried  from  a  diseased  to  a  healthy  tree  by  the  prun- 
ing implement. 

SCAB  (Fusicladium) . — This  is  the  disease  that  causes  the  scab  or 
blotches  that  deface  the  skin  of  appl^c  and  destroys  the  leaves. 


THE   APPLE. 


FIG.  60  —Apple  affected  with  scab. 


It  also  attacks  pears.  Figure  60  shows  the  appearance  of  an  apple 
affected  with  this  disease.  It  not  only  injures  the  appearance 
of  the  fruit,  and  conse- 
quently its  market  value, 
but  seems  to  dwarf  its 
growth.  It  is  only  occa- 
sionally abundant  in  this 
state,  and  as  a  rule  our 
hardy  varieties  are  not  in- 
jured by  it.  In  case  it  be- 
comes abundant  it  may  be 
prevented  by  spraying  the 
trees  with  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture, made  as  recommend- 
ed in  the  chapter  on  straw- 
berries, but  diluted  by 
adding  twice  as  much 
water.  Spray  the  trees 
with  it  as  soon  as  the  first 
leaves  appear;  again  just 
after  bloom,  and  a  third  time  two  or  three  weeks  later.  If  rains 
are  frequent  in  June  a  fourth  spraying  should  be  given  in  the 
latter  part  of  that  month. 

Insects.— FLAT-HEADED  APPLE  TREE  BORER  (Chrysobothris 
fentoratd).  This  borer  is  quite  abundant  in  some  sections,  but 
generally  does  not  cause  serious  losses  here.  It  prefers  to  work 
in  trees  that  are  newly  transplanted,  or  weakened  by  some  dis- 
ease, and  makes  its  borings  in  the  trunk  and  larger  branches,  often 
completely  girdling  them.  It  is  the  larva 
of  a  beetle  which  is  oblong,  flattish  in 
form,  and  of  a  shining  greenish-black 
color,  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
long.  The  beetles  emerge  from  the  bor- 
ing in  the  trees  in  the  early  summer. 
They  are  very  active  in  the  middle  of 
warm  days,  and  may  be  found  in  the  hot 
sunshine  running  up  and  down  the 
trunk  of  the  tree,  whence  they  fly  quick- 
ly if  an  attempt  is  made  to  catch  them. 
They  lay  their  eggs,  which  are  yellow, 
under  loose  scales  on  the  bark,  or  in 
cracks  and  crevices.  The  young  soon 
hatch  and  eat  their  way  through  the 
,  bark,  feeding  on  the  sap  wood.  As  the 

^g^fto^ftft^  bo«r  approaches   maturity   it   usually 

6,  pupa:  d,  beetle  somewhat  bores    into    the    more   solid   wood,  and 

finally  out  to  the  bark,  where  it  changes 

into  the  beetle  form.    Figure  61  showa  the  borer  in  its  several 
forms. 


THE  APPLE. 


REMEDIES. — All  trees  should  be  examined  early  in  autumn, 
when,  if  there  are  borers  present,  they  may  be  detected  by  the 
dry  appearance  of  the  bark,  by  the  borings,  or  by  the  exudation  of 
sap,  or  sawdust-like  castings.  When  such  signs  are  seen  the  parts 
should  be  at  once  cut  into  with  a  knife  and  the  borer  destroyed. 
As  a  preventive  measure  there  is  perhaps  nothing  better  than  to 
coat  the  trunk  and  larger  branches  with  a  mixture  of  soft-soap  re- 
duced to  the  consistency  of  a  thick  paint  with  a  solution  of  wash- 
ing soda,  and  if  a  little  carbolic  acid  is  added  it  will  be  even  more 
repulsive  to  the  beetles.  This  should  be  kept  on  the  trees  during 
the  summer  months,  when  this  insect  is  injurious. 

NEW  YORK  WEEVIL  (Ithycerus  noveboracensis) .  This  is  a  very 
large  snout-beetle  of  gray  color  marked 
with  black,  about  one-half  inch  long. 
It  breeds  in  the  oak,  and  is  only  abun- 
dant where  there  are  oak  groves  near 
by.  In  such  locations  it  often  causes 
great  injury  by  gnawing  out  the  buds 
early  in  the  season,  and  later  by  cutting 
off  the  young  shoots,  so  that  the  trees 
are  destroyed  or  seriously  injured.  It 
attacks  cherries  and  plums  as  well  as 
apples.  It  seems  to  do  its  work  at  night, 
or  early  in  the  morning,  for  it  does  not 
work  much  if  at  all  during  the  day. 
Figure  62  shows  this  insect  in  its  differ- 
ent stages  of  growth. 

REMEDY.— The  only  known  remedy 
for  this  pest  is  to  jar  the  trees,  when 
they  curl  up  and  fall  to  the  ground,  and 
then  may  readily  be  gathered  and  des- 
troyed. When  the  trees  are  badly  in- 
fested they  should  be  jarred  once  a  day 
as  long  as  any  are  found.  They  disap- 
pear about  the  first  of  July. 
TENT  CATERPILLAR  (Clisiocampa  Americana). — The  characteris- 
tics of  this  insect  are  readily  seen  in  Fig.  63,  which  shows  the 
caterpillar  resting  on  the  outside  of  the  tent-like  structure  in 
which  they  live,  and  also  a  twig  sustaining  a  bunch  of  eggs.  The 
habit  of  this  insect  is  about  as  follows :  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the 
smaller  twigs  of  fruit  trees  in  ring-like  clusters  during  the  first 
two  weeks  in  July.  Two  or  three  hundred  eggs  are  laid  in  each 
cluster,  and  they  are  firmly  cemented  together.  These  hatch  out 
early  in  the  spring  just  as  the  leaves  open.  The  young  caterpillars 
soon  commence  to  make  a  tent  by  extending  sheets  of  web  across 
the  nearest  forks  of  the  twigs,  and  this  tent  or  nest  is  enlarged  as 
more  room  is  needed.  It  has  holes  in  it  through  which  the  cater- 
pillars enter.  The  caterpillars  retreat  t^  the  nest  at  night  and  in 


FlG.  62. — New  York  Weevil 
b,  larva,'    c,  bee'le. 


88 


THE   APPLE. 


stormy  weather,  and  usually  when  not  feeding.    They  generally 
come  out  of  their  nest  once  in  the  morning  and  once  in  the  after- 


FIG.  M.— Early  stages  of  Orchard  Tent  Caterpillar, 
a.  b.  Caterpillars  resting  on  tent-like  nest;  c,  ring 
of  tike  egg  mass  on  twig;  d,  cocoon. 

noon  to  feed.  They  are  very  voracious,  and  soon  strip  the  infested 
tree  of  its  foliage.  They  change  to  moths  (Fig.  64)  in  June  and 
soon  commence  laying  eggs. 

REMEDY.— The  tents 
are  readily  seen.  They 
should  be  destroyed  early 
in  the  season  when  the 
worms  are  within  them. 
The  egg  masses  are  also 
readily  seen  against  a 
cloudy  sky,  and  are  easily 
gathered  and  destroyed.  FlG-  64-~ Moth  °f  Orchard  Tent  Caterpillar. 
The  foliage  may  be  poisoned  with  Paris  green,  used  at  the  rate  of 
one  pound  to  two  hundred  gallons  of  water. 

The  forest  tent  caterpillar,  which  has  caused  so  much  damage 


THE  APPLE. 


in  this  section  some  years,  closely  resembles  the  foregoing  in  ap- 
pearance, but  it  builds  only  a  very  thin  web  against  the  trunk  or 
branches  of  the  trees,  and  they  march  in  every  direction.  At  night 
they  collect  in  groups  on  the  trunks  and  branches  of  the  trees, 
where  they  may  be  easily  destroyed.  The  egg  masses  resemble 
those  of  the  tent  caterpillar,  but  as  these  are  generally  high  up  on 
forest  trees  it  is  impracticable  to  gather  and  destroy  them.  The 
best  remedy  is  to  poison  the  infested  trees  with  Paris  green,  as 
recommended  for  the  tent  caterpillar. 

CLIMBING  CUT- WORM  (Agrotis  ,sp).— When  the  foliage  or  buds 
are  being  destroyed  without  any  apparent  cause,  climbing  cut- 
worms should  be  searched  for.  They  will  be  found  buried  in  the 
ground  near  the  base  of  the  trees.  They  are  closely  allied  to  and 
resemble  the  common  cut-worms,  so  well  known  to  gardeners,  and 
occasionally  do  much  damage.  They  may  be  destroyed  by  spray- 
ing the  foliage  as  recommended  for  the  tent  caterpillar  and  by 
jarring  the  trees  after  dark,  having  first  spread  sheets  on  the 
ground.  Putting  a  cone-shaped  piece  of  zinc  or  tin  around  the 
tree,  so  that  they  cannot  gain  a  foothold  on  it,  will  keep  them  off 
the  trees. 

CODLING  MOTH  (Carpocapsa  pomonella). — Figure  65  plainly 
shows  the  work  of  this  pest.  It  is  the  common  cause  of  wormy 

apples,  and  causes  the 
infested  fruit  to  ripen 
prematurely  and  fall  to 
the  ground.  The  moths 
deposit  their  eggs  in 
the  calyx  or  eye  of  the 
apple  just  as  the  blos- 
soms fall.  On  hatching 
the  worm  eats  into  the 
fruit,  where  it  lives  un- 
til it  is  ready  to  change 
to  the  moth  stage,  when 
it  leaves  the  fruit  and 
spins  a  cocoon  in  which 
it  undergoes  its  change. 
There  are  several 
broods  in  a  season.  The 
worms  that  are  in  the 
late  apple  leave  them 
in  the  winter  and  find 
FIG.  §r>.—Codlinq  Moth  a,  Apple  injured  by  places  to  spin  their  co- 
worm;  b,  calyx.,  end  where  the  larva  entered;  coons  near  by,  often  be- 
f.  larva  (worm)  escaping;  /,  moth  at  rest;  fl',fl_00_  tv._  hnnna  n /i 
same  with  wings  spread;  d,  chrysalis;  i.  6-o-tween  tne  hoops  and 
coon.  staves  of  the  barrels 

holding  the  fruit. 

REMEDIES.— The  fallen  fruit  should  be  promptly  gathered  and 
destroyed.  Keeping  hogs  in  an  orchard  is  very  beneficial.  If 


90 


THE   APPLE. 


bands  of  burlap,  or  even  paper,  six  inches  wide,  are  fastened 
around  the  trunks  not  later  than  the  first  of  June,  the  worms  and 
chrysalides  of  this  moth  will  be  found  under  them  and  may  be 
easily  destroyed.  The  bands  should  be  examined  about  once  in 
ten  days  until  the  last  of  August. 

The  most  common  way  of  protecting  against  this  insect  is  by 
spraying  the  trees  just  after  the  blossoms  fall,  when  the  apples 
stand  upright,  with  Paris  green  and  water,  at  the  rate  of  one 
pound  to  two  hundred  gallons.  When  the  trees  are  sprayed  to 
prevent  scab  the  Paris  green  may  be  added  to  the  Bordeax  mix- 
ture at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  two  hundred  gallons  of  the  mixture. 
FALL  WEB- WORM  (Hyphantria  textir). — This  resembles  the  or- 
dinary tent  caterpillar  in  having  a  tent,  but  is  smaller  in  size.  It 
appears  in  the  late  summer  and  fall.  It  is  quickly  seen  and  easily 
destroyed  by  cutting  off  the  twig  on  which  the  web  is  found  and 
destroying  the  caterpillars,  or  by  spraying  the  foliage  with  Paris 
green,  as  recommended  for  tent  caterpillar. 

APPLE  CURCULIO  (Anthwomus  q-uadrigibbus) .  This  is  a  snout- 
beetle  which  cuts  small  holes 
in  fruit  as  it  feeds,  and  also  as 
a  place  for  its  eggs.  The  lat- 
ter soon  hatch  a  small  grub, 
about  one-half  inch  long.  The 
special  injury  to  the  fruit 
comes  from  the  hard  knots 
that  form  around  the  hole, 
which  makes  the  apples 
gnarled  and  of  poor  quality. 
(See  Figs.  66  and  67.) 

REMEDY.— This     insect 
breeds   mostly    in    the    wild  FIG. 

haws  and  wild  crab  apples,  size;  b  and  c,  the  beetle  much  enlarged. 
and  destroying  these  generally  results  in  lessening  the  damage  to 

the  apples  in  their  vicin- 
ity. The  windfalls  should 
be  destroyed,  and  pastur- 
ing hogs  in  the  orchard  is 
probably  the  easiest  way 
to  accomplish  it.  Spray- 
ing the  fruit  with  Paris 
green  and  water,  as  recom- 
mended for  the  tent  cater- 
pillar, is  a  satisfactory 
remedy  and  may  be  usad 

FIG.  67  —Apple  curculio.     a.  Pupa  stage;  to    supplement   the    other 

remedies  meBtioned. 


—Apple  C'urculio;    a,  natural 


THE  APPLE. 


91 


APPLE  LEAF  LICE  (Aphis  mail).— The  leaves  of  the  apple  are 
frequently  attacked  by  lice,  which  by  sucking  the  sap  cause  the 
leaves  to  curl  up  and  assume  a  very  unnatural  appearance.  They 

work  almost  entire- 
ly on  the  lower  side 
of  the  leaf  and  are 
most  abundant  o  n 
the  new  and  tender 
growth.  Similar 
lice  attack  the  foli- 
age of  plum,  currant 
and  other  plants. 
The  eggs  of  these 
lice  are  very  small 
but  shiny  black  in 
color,  and  may  be 
FIG.  68.—  Apple  Leaf  Lice,  showing  various  stages  found  on  the  twigs 
of  growth.  The  straight  lines  indicate  natural  size.  Q^  apple  and  other 

trees  during  the  winter.  They  hatch  out  early  in  the  spring  and 
multiply  with  great  rapidity.  (Fig.  68.) 

REMEDIES.— The  lice  should  be  destroyed  early  in  the  spring 
before  they  have  become  numerous.  The  eggs  hatch  out  about  the 
time  the  buds  are  bursting,  and  as  soon  as  the  lice  appear  they 
should  be  sprayed  with  strong  soapsuds,  kerosene  emulsion  or 
tobacco  water;  the  latter  made  by  boiling  one  pound  of  rough 
stems  or  leaves  in  a  gallon  of  water ;  will  be  very  effective  against 
the  young  lice.  Kerosene  emulsion  is  easily  made,  cheap  and  very 
effective.  It  should  be  sprayed  on  the  infested  trees.  If  the  lice 
are  allowed  to  get  very  numerous  before  spraying  is  commenced 
the  work  will  have  to  be  repeated  several  times.  Kerosene  emul- 
sion made  as  follows : 

Kerosene  EmuMon.—Solt  soap,  one  quart,  or  one-fourth  pound 
of  hard  soap ;  two  quarts  hot  water;  one  pint  kerosene.  Stir  until 
all  are  permanently  mixed,  and  then  add  water  until  the  kerosene 
forms  one-fifteenth  of  the  whole  compound.  A  good  way  to  make 
the  emulsion  permanent  is  to  pump  the  mixture  back  into  the  re- 
ceptacle several  times. 

There  are  many  other  insects  that  occasionally  injure  the 
apple.  For  those  that  eat  the  leaves  Paris  green  and  water  is 
generally  the  best  remedy,  and  it  may  be  used  as  strong  as  one 
pound  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  water  without  injury  to  foliage, 
but  generally  one  pound  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  gallons  of  water 
is  considered  about  the  right  proportion. 

Varieties.— The  following  list  of  varieties  includes  only  the 
hardiest  kinds  and  those  that  are  generally  successful  in  the  loca- 
tion for  which  they  are  recommended,  and  that  can  be  readily  ob- 
tained from  nurserymen.  In  very  favorable  locations  less  hardy 
varieties  may  be  profitable,  but  it  will  be  best  for  the  inexperi- 
enced planter  in  severe  climates  to  try  only  the  hardiest  kinds. 


i)3  THE   APPLE. 

In  selecting  varieties  it  should  always  oe  borne  in  mind  that 
the  experience  of  reliable  and  progressive  tree  growers  of  a  neigh- 
borhood will  indicate  what  varieties  will  succeed  in  that  particular 
location  far  better  than  any  list  one  is  apt  to  receive  from  those 
not  acquainted  with  the  local  peculiarities  of  climate  and  soil. 

In  planting  do  not  put  in  many  varieties,  and  especially  avoid 
usicg  many  of  those  that  are  untried,  or  new  seedlings.  These 
latter  often  sell  at  high  prices,  and  are  generally  of  doubtful  value 
and  disappointing  in  results.  Past  experience  would  seem  to  show 
that  not  one  in  fifty  of  new  seedling  apples  introduced  are  worth 
growing.  If  one  wants  to  and  can  afford  to  experiment,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  try  new  fruits,  for  it  is  a  very  interesting  pursuit,  but  at 
the  same  time  such  work  can  and  is  being  done  in  a  much  more 
thorough  way  by  the  Experiment  Station. 

Russian  Apples.— Under  this  head  is  included  several  nun- 
dred  varieties  of  apples  that  have  been  introduced  into  this  coun- 
try from  Russia.  They  vary  wonderfully  in  form,  size  and  quality 
of  fruit,  and  in  hardiness  of  tree.  All  of  them  have  not  been  tried 
here  long  enough  to  determine  their  value,  but  enough  has  been 
learned  to  say  that  among  them  are  many  so  tender,  or  susceptible 
to  blight,  as  to  be  worthless  for  the  colder  portions  of  the  United 
States.  Others  are  of  too  poor  quality,  while  others  are  too  long 
in  coming  into  bearing.  But  some  of  them  have  shown  wonderful 
hardiness,  productiveness  and  freedom  from  blight,  so  that  they 
are  now  being  more  largely  planted  by  the  most  intelligent  apple 
growers  of  the  North  than  any  other  kinds.  These  few  Russian 
apples  have  proven  to  be  much  superior  to  the  varieties  in  the  old 
lists.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  apple 
known  as  Duchess  of  Oldenburg  has  been  conclusively  shown  to  be 
a  Russian  variety.  Among  the  Russian  apples  are  varieties 
adapted  to  eveiy  season,  and  the  near  future  will  undoubtedly 
warrant  a  more  liberal  selection  of  them  than  is  here  indicated. 

Summer  Varieties.— TETOFSKY  (Russian).  Fruit  is  medium 
size,  yellow,  and  of  a  sprightly,  agreeable  acid  quality.  Ripe  early 
in  August  and  quickly  perishable.  The  tree  is  a  close,  very  up- 
right grower,  and  is  doing  well  over  a  large  portion  of  the  North- 
west. More  desirab  e  for  home  garden  than  for  market. 

YELLOW  TRANSPARENT  (Jtussian). — A  fine,  early,  yellow  sum- 
mer apple  of  extra  quality,  good  size  and  productive.  It  is  fairly 
hardy  against  climatic  changes,  but  is  very  liable  to  blight,  and 
should  not  be  planted  wherethis  disease  is  prevalent.  Bears  young. 

Late  Summer  and  EarJy  Autumn  Varieties.— OLDEN- 
BURG, OR  DUCHESS,  OR  DUCHESS  OF  OLDENBURG  ( JRwsian) .  The 
first  name  is  now  recognized  as  official.  The  most  popular  late 
summer  or  early  autumn  apple,  and  the  standard  of  hardiness  as 
far  north  as  Minneapolis.  Of  large  size  and  beautifully  colored; 
rather  acid.  It  comes  into  bearing  very  young,  and  is  very  pro- 
ductive. Season :  August  and  September.  Excellent  for  cooking 
in  a  green  state  or  when  dpe. 


THE   APPLE.  93 

BOKOVINKA  (Russian) . — Closely  resembles  the  Oldenburg  in 
every  particular,  except  that  it  is  said  to  be  a  little  less  acid  and  a 
better  keeper. 

CHAKLAMOFF  (Russian). — In  coin**  of  fruit  resembling  the  Olden- 
burg, but  oblong  in  form,  of  good  size  and  quality,  season  a  little 
later  than  Oldenburg,  and  the  tree  about  as  hardy. 

LONGFIELD  (Russian). — A  small,  light  colored,  pretty  desert 
apple,  of  extra  good  quality,  that  with  ordinary  care  will  keep  un- 
til January.  It  bears  young  and  regularly.  It  does  best  when  top- 
worked  on  hardy  crab-stocks,  and  should  generally  be  grown  in 
that  way. 

RECUMBENT,  also  called  LIEBY  (Russian)  —  Without  doubt  the 
hardiest  of  the  well-tested  varieties.  The  tree  is  very  spreading 
in  habit,  and  is  considerably  hardier  than  the  Oldenburg.  A  rather 
early  and  regular  bearer  and  productive.  It  seldom  if  ever 
blights  severely,  the  blighting  part  being  confined  to  the  new 
growth.  The  fruit  is  large  and  colored  much  like  the  Oldenburg; 
rather  sour  but  excellent  for  cooking,  and  not  to  be  despised  for 
table  use,  when  fully  ripe.  Season,  late  autumn  and  early  winter 
as  far  north  as  Minneapolis,  but  may  be  kept  until  March  by  a 
little  extra  care. 

HIBERNAL  (Russian).— As  it  is  generally  grown  practically  the 
same  as  Recumbent. 

MAC  MAHON  WHITE.— A  very  handsome,  very  large,  very  pro- 
ductive light  green  apple  of  good  quality.  The  tree  is  fairly  pro- 
ductive and  nearly  hardy  in  Southern  Minnesota  and  Northern 
Iowa;  highly  esteemed  for  planting  in  very  favorable  locations. 
Originated  in  Wisconsin. 

WEALTHY. — A  beautiful  red  apple  of  extra  quality  and  quite 
hardy ;  it  occasionally  blights  badly,  but  is  wonderfully  productive 
in  good  locations.  It  bears  very  young  and  has  great  recuperative 
powers.  If  killed  back  to  the  ground  it  seldom  fails  to  sprout  from 
the  root,  and  these  sprouts  generally  produce  remunerative  crops 
of  fruit.  In  the  bushy  form  thus  made  the  trees  often  fruit  for 
many  years.  It  does  best,  however,  when  top-grafted  on  the 
branches  of  strong  growing  crabs.  Season,  late  autumn  and  early 
winter,  and  it  may  be  kept  until  spring  by  special  care.  Origin- 
ated in  Minnesota. 

Supplementary  List  of  Apples. — The  following  varieties 
have  been  tried  to  a  limited  extent  in  northern  sections  and  are  of 
great  promise : 

BRESKOVKA  (Russian). --Resembles  the  Yellow  Transparent  in 
fruit,  though  somewhat  later  in  ripening.  It  has  been  tried  only 
in  a  limited  way  in  Minnesota,  but  it  is  quite  free  from  blight ;  a 
full  and  regular  bearer  and  much  hardier  in  tree  than  the  Yellow 
Transparent,  which  it  will  probably  supplant  when  better  known. 
Trees  of  this  kind  are  very  scarce. 

THALER,  OK    CHARI.OTTENTHALEK    (/toxxiam).— Much    like    the 


94  THE   APPi.1.. 

Yellow  Transparent  and  of  about  the  same  season,  but  a  much 
better  tree ;  very  productive. 

BLUSHED  CALVILLE  (Russian). — A  fine  summer  apple  resem- 
bling the  Yellow  Transparent  in  fruit,  but  the  tree  is  hardier  and 
not  subject  to  blight. 

ANISIM  (Rmsian).- -An  early  winter  apple  of  extra  nice  table 
quality;  fruit  medium  in  size;  tree  extra  hardy  and  a  strong 
grower.  This  variety  has  generally  been  sent  out  under  the  name 
of  Good  Peasant.  It  is  not  subject  to  blight  and  seldom  sun-scalds. 

Crab  Apples.— Among  these  are  some  delicious  little  dessert 
apples,  while  others  are  only  valuable  for  cooking.  Some  are  very 
hardy  and  resist  blight,  while  others  are  quite  tender,  or  perhaps 
blight  badly. 

EARLY  STRAWBERRY. — Tree  very  hardy,  of  spreading  growth, 
bearing  young  and  heavily ;  fruit  tender  and  delicious,  but  quickly 
perishable.  It  seldom  blights  severely. 

WHITNEY  No.  20.— Tree  much  hardier  than  the  Oldenburg, 
and  generally  very  productive ;  of  very  close,  upright  habit.  Fruit 
of  large  size,  handsomely  striped  with  red,  of  excellent  dessert 
quality.  It  seldom  blights  badly. 

MINNESOTA.-  -Tree  quite  hardy,  but  rather  a  shy  bearer  when 
young.  Fruit  large,  yellow ;  of  fine  table  quality,  and  keeps  until 
January.  It  is  highly  thought  of  by  those  who  are  growing  it  in 
Southern  Minnesota  and  Northern  Iowa..  It  seldom  blights. 

TRANSCEND  ANT.— Very  hardy;  a  strong  grower  and  very  pro- 
ductive ;  it  often  blights  severely.  Fruit  ripens  in  September,  and 
is  well  known. 

MARTHA. — Tree  very  hardy,  a  fine,  thrifty  grower  and  a  heavy 
bearer.  It  seldom  blights.  Fruit  large  and  of  a  rich  red  color;  of 
fine  quality  for  cooking.  Ripens  in  September  and  will  keep  until 
December.  Originated  in  Minnesota. 

VIRGINIA. — Tree  very  hardy  and  free  from  blight;  a  strong 
grower.  It  probably  will  stand  more  adverse  conditions  than  any 
other  apple  known.  Fruit  as  large  or  larger  than  Transcendant, 
and  more  completely  covered  with  red.  Excellent  for  jellies  or 
preserves.  Ripens  in  September  and  keeps  for  two  months.  Per- 
haps the  best  variety  for  top-grafting  with  the  larger  kinds  of 
apples. 

TONKA.— Tree  very  hardy,  of  upright  growth,  quite  free  from 
blight  and  very  productive.  Fruit  about  the  size  of  the  Trans- 
cendant but  flat;  quite  acid.  Season,  October.  Excellent  for 
cooking.  Originated  in  Minnesota. 

PRIDE  OF  MINNEAPOLIS.— Tree  very  hardy,  a  good  grower,  pro- 
ductive and  quite  free  from  blight.  Fruit  of  green  color,  medium 
size,  quite  acid.  Ripens  late  and  keeps  into  winter.  Excellent  for 
jellies.  Were  it  not  for  its  unattractive  color  this  would  be  one  of 
the  most  profitable  crabs  to  grow  for  market  as  it  is  immensely 
productive.  Not  generally  offered  by  nurserymen.  Originated  in 
Minnesota. 


CHAPTER    XI. 


THE  PLUM. 


HE  plum  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  our  cultivated  fruits. 
In  point  of  hardiness  it  is  surpassed  by  none  other.  Some 
varieties  of  good  quality  are  hardy  as  far  north  as  Winni- 
peg. It  is  valuable  for  cooking  or  eating  uncooked.  It  should  be 
more  generally  grown,  and  more  attention  should  be  paid  to  get- 
ting varieties  that  will  prolong  the  season,  which  will  last  for  at 
least  six  weeks  if  a  proper  selection  is  made  of  the  kinds  now- 
offered  by  nurserymen  at  reasonable  figures.  There  are  four 
species  of  the  plum  which  are  of  interest  to  us  in  this  section: 

(1)  Prunus  domestica,  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and  from  it  have 
come  the  varieties  of  plum  commonly  cultivated  in  the  Eastern 
States  and  in  California,  but  varieties  of  it  generally  cultivated  in 
these  sections  are  not  hardy  here.    There  are,  however,  a  number 
of  varieties  of  this  species  which  have  been  introduced  from  Rus- 
sia and  promise  to  be  of  some  value  here. 

(2)  Prunus  Americana,  is  the  plum  found  in  our  woods  in  its 
wild  state.    It  is  far  superior  to  the  original  form  of  the  preced- 
ing species,  and  it  is  very  probable  that  under  cultivation  many 
very  desirable  varieties  will  be  developed,  which  will  be  hardy 
enough  for  this  section.    Already  selections  have  been  made  from 
it  by  our  nurserymen  which  are  vastly  superior  to  the  kinds  ordi- 
narily found  in  the  woods.    These  vary  much  in  size,  form,  quality 
and  color.  Some  are  very  nice  dessert  fruit,  some  have  free-stones, 
•^hile  generally  they  have  ding-stones.    This  is  the  most  promising 
species  for  this  section. 

There  are  two  forms  of  this.  One  is  rather  a  small  tree  with 
black  twigs  and  close  head,  having  small,  very  astringent  purplish 
fruit.  The  other  is  more  open  in  its  habit,  makes  a  larger  tree,  and 
has  rather  large  fruit  colored  with  red  and  yellow.  It  is  to  this 
latter  form  that  we  must  look  for  the  best  varieties  for  cultivation. 

The  two  other  species  of  interest  to  us  are  (3)  Prunus  hortulana 
and  (4)  Prunus  angustifolia.  These  species  are  seldom  found  north 
of  Central  Iowa.  Many  of  them  are  not  hardy  enough  for  North- 
ern Iowa,  but  some  varieties  of  it  are  hardy  as  far  north  as  St. 

95 


96 


THE   PLUM. 


Paul,  although,  as  a  rule,  they  do  not  fruit  well  so  far  north.    All 
these  species  readily  hybridize  together. 

Propagation.— The  plum  does  not  come  true  from  seed,  al- 
though there  are  some  varieties  which  nearly  reproduce  themselves 
in  this  way.  However,  the  seed  is  sown  in  order  to  produce  new 
varieties,  and  the  stocks  into  which  the  named  kinds  are  budded 
or  grafted.  If  the  seed  is  allowed  to  get  very  dry  before  planting 
it  will  lie  in  the  ground  one  year  before  it  will  start ;  but  if  it  is 
buried  at  once  after  separating  it  from  the  flesh  it  will  come  up  the 
following  spring.  Seedlings  bear  in  from  three  to  five  years  from 
seed.  They  are  generally  large  enough  to  graft  upon  when  one 
year  old,  and  if  given  plenty  of  room,  in  rich  soil,  are  large  enough 
to  be  budded  the  first  year  from  seed. 

Nurserymen  generally  offer  plants  that  are  grafted  or  budded. 
It  matters  not  by  which  method  they  are  grown,  as  long  as  the  root 
on  which  they  are  worked  is  hardy.  For  this  purpose  native  seed- 
lings are  most  desirable  and  should  be  used  when  possible,  but 
Angustifolia.  and  Hortulana  stocks  do  very  well  if  planted  pretty 
deep.  A  European  form  of  the  plum  called  Jfyrobolan  is  frequently 
used  by  nurserymen  for  stocks,  but  its  use  in  this  section  is  to  be 
discouraged,  as  it  does  not  stand  well  here.  If  plums  are  to  be 
grafted  the  work  should  be  done  very  early  in  the  spring,  even 
before  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground. 

Thrifty  Suckers  make  very  desirable  trees  when  grown  for 
a  year  or  two  in  the  nursery.  They  should  be  taken  up  with  a 
short  piece  of  the  main  root 
from  which  they  grew  (Fig. 
69).  If  simply  pulled  up  they 
are  often  of  little  value.  If 
the  smaller  roots  around  the 
trees  are  cut  while  they  are 
dormant,  as  in  the  early  fall 
or  early  spring,  they  will  read- 
ily sprout.  Most  varieties  of 
the  plum  will  grow  from 
pieces  of  the  root  made  into 
cuttings  about  six  inches  long 
in  the  fall  of  the  year  and 
planted  out  in  spring.  Such 
cuttings  should  be  buried  in 
the  ground  until  planted  out. 
One  advantage  of  having  trees 
that  are  grown  from  suckers 
or  cuttings  is  that  they  are  on 
their  own  roots  and  conse- 
quently any  suckers  from 
them  will  be  true  to  name, 
while  suckers  from  grafted  or 
budded  trees  are  of  little  if 
any  value. 


FIG.  QQ.—Plum  sprout  ,     . 
up  with  a  piece  of  the 
it  grew. 


taken 
from 


THE   PLUM.  97 

Profits  of  Cultivation.— In  good  locations  this  fruit  may  be 
grown  at  considerable  profit.  Occasionally  the  numerous  wild 
plums  somewhat  affect  the  demand  for  the  cultivated  kinds,  but 
wild  plums  are  growing  scarcer  with  each  succeeding  year,  and  the 
consumers  already  begin  to  discriminate  between  the  wild  and  the 
cultivated  varieties,  and  are  willing  to  pay  more  for  the  latter.  No 
one  should  be  contented  to  plant  with  the  common  wild  kinds  when 
varieties  so  very  much  better  can  be  obtained  at  a  moderate  price. 

Location.— The  best  location  for  the  plum  is  on  high  land, 
sloping  to  the  north  and  having  a  retentive  soil,  and  protected  from 
the  east  winds,  as  the  storms  from  this  direction  are  most  injurious 
at  blooming  time.  It  will,  however,  grow  and  fruit  abundantly  in 
almost  any  situation.  It  will  stand  much  neglect,  but  responds 
quickly  to  good  cultivation,  which  it  must  have  to  be  profitable. 

Planting. — The  trees  may  be  set  out  either  in  the  fall  or 
spring  of  the  year,  but  spring  setting  is  most  desirable.  If  planted 
in  autumn  the  work  should  be  done  by  the  middle  of  October,  and 
the  soil  watered  if  dry.  The  best  trees  are  those  which  are  two 
years  from  the  graft  or  bud  and  grown  on  native  seedling  stocks. 
Thrifty  suckers  also  make  good  plants  if  well  rooted.  The  trees 
should  be  planted  about  ten  feet  apart  in  rows,  leaving  sufficient 
distance  between  them  to  allow  for  a  free  circulation  of  air.  It  is 
preferable  to  plant  in  rows  running  north  and  south,  and  they 
should  not  be  nearer  together  than  twenty-four  feet.  The  same 
general  directions  given  for  planting  the  apple  will  apply  here. 

Cultivation.— Land  around  the  trees  should  be  thoroughly 
cultivated  for  the  first  three  years.  If  thorough  cultivation  cannot 
be  given  the  trees  should  be  heavily  mulched,  and  this  is  by  far  the 
best  treatment  for  them  when  they  become  old. 

Renewing  Old  Trees. — Plum  trees  are  inclined  to  over-bear 
and  to  exhaust  themselves,  after  which  they  often  die  out  or  the 
fruit  becomes  very  small  and  of  poor  quality.  On  that  account 
manuring  should  be  resorted  to  when  the  trees  fail  to  make  a  satis- 
factory growth.  Quite  frequently  as  the  trees  get  old  the  fruiting 
branches  become  very  long  and  bare  with  all  the  fruit  near  their 
extremities.  In  such  shape  they  are  liable  to  split  down  in  the 
crotches.  When  trees  get  into  this  condition  the  longer  branches 
should  be  shortened  back  (as  shown  in  Fig.  70),  and  some  care 
taken  In  removing  or  shortening  the  suckers  that  will  start  so  as  to 
make  a  good  top  to  the  tree.  Where  a  crotch  is  found  cracked  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  hold  it. in  place,  driving  a  wire  nail  through  it  far 
enough  so  that  its  end  can  be  turned  over.  This  will  often  affect  a 
permanent  cure. 

Pruning.— The  notes  on  time  and  manner  of  pruning  given  in 
the  chapter  on  the  apple  will  apply  here.  Plum  trees  should  be 
pruned  so  as  to  allow  the  branches  to  start  out  about  two  feet 
from  the  ground.  The  trunks  of  plum  trees  do  not  sun-scald  read- 
ily, but  if  long  stems  are  exposed  the  growth  on  the  south  side  is 


98 


THE   PLUM. 


weakest  and  the  trees  are  very  liable  to  become  onesided.    Ex- 
posed trunks  are  also  liable  tn  a  fatal  gumming  disease. 

Mixing  Varieties.— Some  varieties  of  the  plum  have  flowers 
which  seem  to  be  impotent  to  their  own  pollen,  that  is  they  are  not 
fruitful  when  growing  away  from  other  varieties  of  the  plum. 
Then  again  other  varieties,  while  seemingly  potent  to  their  own 
pollen,  fruit  much  more  abundantly  if  they  are  pollenized  with 
some  other  variety.  On  this  account  it  is  always  desirable  to 
plant  more  than  one  variety  of  the  plum,  and  even  to  mix  the  vari- 


FIG.  70. — Renewing  an  old  plum  tree,  The  long  branches  have  been 
shortened  in  to  encourage  compact  form.  The  figures  1  indicate 
where  pruning  has  been  done, 

eties  together  by  planting  them  alternately  in  the  rows.  Some 
varieties  which  are  entirely  unfruitful  when  growing  alone  are 
very  productive  when  grown  by  the  side  of  some  other  kind  having 
strong  pollen. 

Marketing. — The  rule  of  never  sending  fruit  to  market  in 
rough,  unsightly  or  unusual  packages,  holds  well  here.  Plums 
should  never  be  marketed  in  rough  baskets,  tubs  or  boxes,  as  is 
often  practiced,  but  in  some  of  the  popular  commercial  fruit  pack- 
ages, which  can  now  be  obtained  at  very  low  prices. 


THE   PLUM. 


Varieties.— The  varieties  mentioned  below  ripen  about  in  the 
order  in  which  they  are  described.  They  are  all  good  fruits  and 
desirable.  By  selecting  three  or  four  kinds  the  season  of  fruiting 
may  be  made  a  very  long  one.  There  are  a  number  of  other  vari- 
etits  that  are  very  good,  and  several  untried  ones  said  to  be  better 
than  any  mentioned,  but  those  referred  to  have  been  tried  for  a 
considerable  time. 

CHENEY.— A  very  early  plum  of  largest  size  and  excellent  qual- 
ity. Tree,  a  very  strong*  grower,  hardy  and  productive.  This 
variety  flowers  very  early,  and  on  this  account  is  more  liable  to 
have  its  blossoms  injured  by  late  frosts  than  some  others. 

FOREST  GARDEN.— An  early  plum  of 
high  flavor  and  fair  size,  but  its  skin  is 
rather  thick  and  astringent.  Tree  a  strong 
grower  and  fruitful. 

WOLF. — A  free-stone  plum  of  large  size 
and  excellent  quality ;  pit  very  small.  Tree 
a  good  grower,  hardy  and  fruitful. 

ROLLINGSTONE.— A  large  plum  of  excel- 
lent quality.  Tree  vigorous,  hardy,  with 
very  crooked  branches.  Season,  second 
early.  In  seme  location  a  heavy  bearer.  FIG.  71.— Section  through 

WEAVER.— A  valuable  late  large  plum      Forest  Garden  plum. 
of  good  quality,  having  its  pit  free  from  the  flesh.    Skin  not  astrin- 
gent.   Tree  a  strong  grower,  very  hardy  and  fruitful. 


FIG.  T2.— Section  through 
Weaver  plum. 


FIG.  73.— Section  through 
De  Soto  plum. 


DjsSoTO.— A  late  variety  of  medium  size  and  good  quality. 
Tree  a  vigorous,  good  grower.  Thought  by  many  to  be  the  most 
reliable  of  our  native  plums. 

WYANT.— A  new  variety  which  is  reported  on  highest  authority 
as  being  of  the  best  quality.  It  has  been  growing  at  the  Minnesota 
Experiment  Station  for  two  years  and  appears  to  be  hardy. 


100 


THE   PLUM. 


Diseases  of  the  Plum.— PLUM  POCKETS.— This  is  a  name 
given  to  certain  peculiar  bellow  deformities  which  occasionally 
take  the  place  of  the  plums  (see  Pig.  74).  They  consist  merely  of 
a  thin  shell  with  no  evi- 
dence whatever  of  seed. 
Some  seasons  this  dis- 
ease is  very  abundant, 
and  then  for  a  number 
of  years  it  may  scarce 
appear  at  all.  It  is  due 
to  the  presence  of  a 
parasitic  fungus  (Taph- 
rina  pruni)  which  at- 
tacks the  young  fruit, 
and  by  growing  within 
it  causes  the  peculiar 
development  which  fin- 
ally results  in  the  for- 
mation of  the  so-called 
pocket.  The  only 
course  of  treatment 
which  can  be  recom- 
mended is  that  of  re- 
moving and  destroying 
the  pockets  before  they 
reach  maturity.  It  will 
sometimes  be  found 
that  a  single  tree  will 
be  troubled  with  this 
fungus  for  a  series  of 
years,  and  it  will  not 
spread  much.  When 
this  is  the  case  such 
trees  should  be  des- 


FiG.  74.— Plum  pockets,  or  diseased  plums. 


troyed,  as  they  are 
likely  to  be  centers  of 
infection.  Some  varieties  are  more  subject  to  its  attack  than  others. 
BLACK-KNOT,  OR  WART  OF  THS  PLUM,  is  the  common  name  of 
the  fungus  disease  of  this  tree  which  manifests  itself  by  knot-like 
or  wart-like  growths  appearing  on  the  smaller  limbs  as  well  as  on 
the  larger  branches,  and  sometimes  even  on  the  trunk  (see  Fig.  75). 
In  sections  of  the  country  where  Prunus  domestica  is  grown  this  is 
one  of  the  most  serious  obstacles  to  successful  cultivation  of  the 
plum.  Our  native  plums  are  not  often  destroyed  by  it,  but  it 
sometimes  causes  serious  injury  to  them.  This  knot-like  growth  is 
spongy  and  of  a  black  color.  Upon  examining  it  with  a  microscope 
it  is  found  that  the  surface  has  many  little  cavities  which  contain 
the  spores  by  which  the  disease  spreads.  It  is  probable  that  the 


101 


spores  escape  from  the  knots  during  the  late  winter  or  early  spring 
months. 

Remedy. — Upon  their  first  appear- 
ance these  swellings  should  be  removed 
and  burned,  if  they  are  on  the  smaller 
branches  where  it  is  practicable  to  cut 
them  off;  if  on  the  trunk  or  larger 
branches  where  they  cannot  be  cut  out 
thty  should  be  painted  with  a  paste 
made  of  yellow  ochre  and  linseed  oil, 
using  care  to  keep  the  oil  away  from 
the  healthy  bark ;  where  trees  are  very 
badly  infested  they  should  be  removed 
entirely.  This  same  disease  also  grows 
in  the  wild  black  and  choke  cherries, 
and  if  abundant  on  them  their  removal 
will  make  the  extermination  of  the  dis- 
ease more  easy. 

Other  Diseases.— There  are  sev- 
eral other  fungus  diseases  which  occa- 
sionally injure  the  plum.  One  of  them 
(Monilia  fructigena)  causes  the  fruit  to 
rot,  while  another  produces  round,  dry, 
scabby  spots  on  the  skin.  Probably  the 
best  treatment  where  these  are  abun- 
dant is  to  spray  the  fruit  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  as  soon  as  it  is  well  formed, 
and  again  when  about  half  grown.  For 
recipe  for  making  Bordeaux  mixture 
see  chapter  on  the  strawberry. 

Insects.— PLUM  CURCULIO.— This  is 
the  insect  which  causes  the  plums  to 
prematurely  ripen  and  drop  to  the 
ground.  It  is  not  nearly  so  destructive 
to  our  native  plums  as  to  those  of  the 
Prunus  domestica  tribe.  The  latter  are 

,  often  so  badly  infested  that  none  of  the 
FIG.  75.—  Black  knot,  or  wart   . 

on  plum  wood.  fruit  comes  to  full  maturity.    While  our 

native  plums  are  stung  just  as  much  by 

the  curculio  as  the  others,  but  few  of  the  eggs  of  the  curculio  de- 
velop into  the  grub  This  insect  is  a  small,  rough,  greyish  or 
blackish  beetle,  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long  with  a  black,  shin- 
ing lump  on  the  middle  of  each  wing,  and  behind  this  a  more  or 
less  distinct  band  of  a  dull  yellow  color,  with  some  whitish  marks 
about  the  middle  (see  Fig.  76).  The  snout  is  rather  short.  The 
female  lays  her  eggs  in  the  young  green  fruit  shortly  after  it  is 
formed.  After  laying  the  egg  she  cuts  a  circle  round  it  to  prevent 
the  part  in  which  the  egg  is  laid  from  growing  (see  Fig.  77).  The 
egg  hatches  in  a  few  days  and  the  larva  works  around  the  outside 


102 


THE   PLUM. 


of  the  stone.  This  causes  the  fruit  to  become  diseased  and  it  falls 
prematurely  to  the  ground.  Within  the  plum  the  growth  of  the 
larva  is  completed.  It  then  goes  into  the  ground  and  transforms 
to  the  beetle  and  soon  goes  to  the  surface  and  escapes. 

Remedy.—  When  the  curculio  gets  alarmed  it  draws  itself  to- 
gether and  falls  to  the  ground.  Advantages  are  taken  of  this 
peculiarity  to  catch  and  destroy  it.  A  sheet  is  spread  under  the 
trees  and  the  tree  and  its  branches  are  suddenly  jarred,  when  the 
beetles,  which  fall  on  the 
sheet,  may  be  gathered  up 
and  destroyed.  As  it  is  im- 
portant to  catch  as  many 
beetles  as  possible  before  any 
mischief  has  been  done,  jar- 
ring should  begin  while  the 
tree  is  in  blossom,  and  be  con- 
tinued daily  morning  and 
evening,  if  the  insects  are 
abundant,  for  three  or  four 
weeks,  or  until  they  become 
very  scarce. 

Another  remedy  which  is 
less  laborious  and  has  been 
found  very  effectual  is  to 


FIG.  7Q.—Plum  Curculio  (Uonotrache- 
lus  nenuphar.)  a,  represents  the 
worm;  b,  the  pupa;  c,  the  perfect 
beetle;  d,  a  plum  showing  t he  punc- 
ture made  in  deposing  the  egg,  and 
the  crescent  cut.  The  hair-lines  just 
below  a  and  c,  and  to  fhe  left  side  of 
6,  indicate  the  natural  size. 


spray  the  plums  as  soon  as  the 
fruit  is  formed  with  Paris 
green  in  the  proportion  of  one 
pound  to  two  hundred  gallons 
of  water,  and  repeating  the  application  at  intervals  of  a  week  or 
ten  days  until  the  curculios  disappear.  If  the  weather  is  very 

showery  three  sprayings 
may  be  necessary,  but  gen- 
erally two  is  sufficient.  It 
will  be  found  that  where 
hers  with  their  broods  of 
chickens  are  inclosed  with- 
in the  plum  orchard  that 
they  will  devour  a  large 
number  of  the  larva  of  the 
curculio.  If  hogs  are  kept 
in  the  same  inclosure  as 
the  plum  trees  they  will 
/  pick  up  the  fallen  fruit 
and  so  destroy  agreat 
FIG.  77. — «,  Part  of  plum  showing  egg-punc-  many  of  the  larva. 

tare,  and  location  of  egg,  from  above',          _  ~  qrho 

b,  section  through  egg-puncture,  showing  EK.— 

egg.  plum  gouger  is  a  snout- 

beetle  somewhat  resembling  the  curculio,  but  readily  distinguished 
from  it  by  a  little  careful  examination.    It  is  about  five-sixteenth 


THE   PLUM.  103 

of  an  inch  long.  The  head  and  wing  cases  are  brown  with  a  leaden 
grey  tinge,  the  latter  with  whitish  and  black  spots  scattered  irreg- 
ularly over  their  surface.  It  appears  in  the  spring  about  the  same 
time  as  the  curculio,  and  it  causes  the  plums  to  drop  in  much  the 
same  way  as  the  curculio,  but  instead  of  working  around  the  stone 
it  eats  through  the  soft  shell  and  lives  within  the  stone,  where  it 
undergoes  its  changes  and  emerges  a  perfect  beetle.  Both  sexes  of 
the  plum  gouger  bore  cylindrical  holes  in  the  fruit  or  food.  These 
cause  the  fruit  to  become  knotty  and  worthless,  but  it  does  not 
prevent  their  remaining  on  the  tree  until  maturity.  This  insect 
does  not  cut  a  flat  or  half  circle  around  the  hole  in  which  the  egg  is 
placed,  as  is  characteristic  of  the  curculio.  The  remedies  recom- 
mended for  the  curculio  are  the  best  for  preventing  the  work  of 
this  insect. 

APHIS,  or  LEAF  LICE.— These  are  often  abundant  upon  the 
native  plums.  They  live  upon  the  under  side  of  the  leaves ;  are 
generally  not  observed  until  they  are  very  abundant,  and  increase 
with  great  rapidity.  They  resemble  very  much  the  apple  aphis 
before  described,  and  the  same  remedies  will  be  applicable  here. 
It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  treatment  be  commenced  early. 
As  a  rule,  if  they  are  abundant  during  the  summer  their  presence 
could  easily  have  been  detected  early  in  the  spring  when  they  were 
not  numerous,  and  when  it  would  have  been  but  a  small  matter  to 
destroy  them. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  insects  that  injure  the  plum,  but 
they  have  been  referred  to  under  the  head  of  insects  injurious  to 
the  apple. 


CHAPTER    XII. 


THE    CHERRY. 


E  species  from  which  the  commonly  cultivated  cherry  is 
derived  was  probably  the  Frunns  ceratus,  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  It  is  not  indigenous  to  this  country.  There  are  two 
distinct  groups  of  this  fruit.  The  first  comprises  those  kinds  of  a 
strong,  upward,  straight  growth,  pyramidal  form,  and  sweet  or 
bitter  but  not  sour  fruit.  The  second  group  has  sour  fruit,  and 
either  a  spreading  or  upright  habit,  and  the  young  branches  are 
crooked.  This  group  is  divided  into  two  classes,  which  were  for- 
merly termed  Morrellos  and  Dukes,  although  the  reason  for  this 
distinction  has  been  largely  done  away  with  by  their  becoming 
intermingled  by  crossing.  To  this  latter  group  belong  all  the  vari- 
eties that  can  be  successfully  grown  north  of  what  might  be  called 
the  "peach  belt",  and  therefore  those  that  are  of  interest  to  grow- 
ers in  such  latitude. 

Historical.— Until  the  importation  of  East  European  varieties 
of  cherries  there  was  little  encouragement  for  any  one  to  plant  this 
fruit  in  the  colder  sections  of  the  West.  The  hardiest  West  Euro- 
pean varieties,  such  as  the  Early  Richmond  and  English  Morello, 
are  not  reliable  in  the  North,  though  after  lasting  well  for  a  few 
years.  The  East  European  kinds,  which  are  often  referred  to  as 
the  Russian  cherries,  while  as  yet  tried  for  but  a  short  time,  give 
promise  of  being  an  important  addition  to  the  list  of  cultivated 
fruits  for  all  northern  regions.  At  present  they  can  be  bought  of 
but  few  nurserymen,  but  as  they  are  easy  to  propagate  it  will  not 
be  long  before  they  can  be  readily  and  cheaply  obtained. 

Soil  and  Location.— The  best  soil  for  the  cherry  is  one  that 
is  drier  than  is  desirable  for  most  other  fruits ;  a  sandy  or  gravelly 
loam,  with  porous  subsoil,  is  best.  In  wet  places,  or  011  water- 
soaked  subsoils,  it  soon  perishes.  The  best  locations  are  on  high 
land,  but  a  rise  of  even  a  few  feet  above  the  surrounding  country 
is  of  great  advantage 

Propagation.— The  cherry  does  not  come  true  from  seed, 
though  seedling*  are  often  of  veiy  good  quality.  Seedlings  are 
104 


THE   CHEKRT. 


105 


generally  used  as  stocks  on  which  to  work  the  named  varieties. 
The  pits  (seed)  should  be  managed  as  recommended  for  plum  pits. 
Named  varieties  of  the  cherry  are  propagated  by  budding,  graft- 
ing, and  from  suckers.  Budding  and  grafting  are  generally  done 
on  either  of  two  kinds  of  seedling  stocks,  called  Mazzard  and  Mah- 
aleb,  which  are  imported  from  France.  These  are  not  as  hardy  as 
is  desired,  and  in  fact  are  too  tender  to  be  left  without  protection 
in  winter,  though  they  may  last  well  if  protected  by  deep  plant- 
ing. Seedling  bird  cherry  (Prunus  Pennsylvanica)  is  the  best  for 
stock  purposes.  Recent  experiments  with  the  sand  cherry  (Prunns 
Pumila)  seems  to  indicate  that  it  may  be  useful  for  this  purpose  by 
budding,  but  not  by  root-grafting. 


FIG.  78.— Showing  fruit  of  Early  Jforello  Cherry. 

Suckers.— Most  of  the  cultivated  kinds  that  are  valuable  for 
northern  sections  sucker  readily  if  they  are  cut  back  to  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  but,  of  course,  where  such  practice  is  attempted  the 
trees  must  be  on  their  own  roots,  or  the  suckers  will  not  be  like 
them.  This  method  of  propagation  is  seldom  practiced  in  tiiis 
country,  but  may  readily  be  followed  wherever  there  are  old  trees 
on  their  own  roots.  It  is  the  method  generally  preferred  in  Russia, 
and  will  undoubtedly  prove  best  adapted  for  severe  locations  here. 

Cuttings. — A  few  of  the  various  cherries  may  be  grown  from 
cuttings,  but  this  method  is  very  uncertain  and  requires  much 
careful  management.  On  this  account  it  is  seldom  practiced. 

Planting. — The  varieties  of  cherries  that  are  hardy  in  this 
section  do  not  make  large  trees,  but  are  quite  dwarf  and  bushy  in 
habit,  and  on  this  account  they  may  be  planted  quite  close  to- 


106 


THE  CHERRY. 


gether.  It  is  generally  best  to  plant  about  eight  feet  apart,  in  rows 
fifteen  feet  apart.  Most  of  the  plants  sent  out  are  budded  or 
grafted  on  tender  roots,  as  they  are  most  easily  obtained.  These 
may  easily  be  winter-killed  if  exposed  and  cause  the  death  of  a 
tree  which  might  otherwise  be  perfectly  hardy.  On  this  account 
the  roots  should  be  planted  from  four  to  six  inches  deeper  than 
they  grew  in  the  nursery,  to  afford  them  the  protection  of  the  soil. 
Besides  this,  when  planted  deep  the  scion  sends  out  roots,  and 
when  a  tree  is  thus  on  its  own  roots  its  powers  of  resisting  adverse 
conditions  is  greatest. 

Cultivation.— The  cultivation  suggested  for  the  plum  applies 
here.  It  is  important  also  to  mulch  the  trees  when  on  exceedingly 
dry  soils,  but  this  is  not  so  necessary  as  in  case  of  the  plum,  since 
they  do  well  on  much  drier  land. 


FIG.  VS.— Cherry  tree  of  good  form. 

Pruning.— The  cherry  needs  only  enough  pruning  to  keep  the 
tree  in  shape,  and  but  very  little  is  required  to  accomplish  that. 
In  Russia  it  is  grown  in  bush  form,  and  when  it  becomes  too  old  to 
bear  profitably  the  older  parts  are  cut  away  and  new  sprouts  take 
their  places.  The  important  point  to  remember  in  connection  with 
this,  as  well  as  all  stone  fruits,  is  that  they  should  be  trained  to 
branch  low. 

Insects  and  Diseases.— The  iniects  and  diseases  which 
affect  the  cherry  are  about  the  same  as  those  that  injure  the  plum, 


THE   CHEKKY.  107 

and  the  same  remedies  are  applicable  here.  But  the  cherry  may 
be  injured  by  several  insects  that  injure  the  apple,  and  they  will  be 
found  referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  that  fruit. 

Varieties.— The  varieties  which  have  proven  most  hardy  thus 
far  are  Early  Morello  (23  Orel),  Sklanka,  Bessarabian  (No.  62), 
Cuse  d'  Ostheim ;  but  there  are  several  others  that  are  standing 
well  and  may  prove  valuable. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 


BUDDING. 


<2jj  N  its  broad  sense  the  term  grafting,  or  graftage,  includes  all 
^  there  is  of  budding,  which  is  simply  grafting  while  the  tree 
is  growing.  But  as  generally  used  budding  applies  to  the 
process  by  which  a  bud  of  the  season  is  removed  from  its  parent 
plant  and  induced  to  unite  with  and  grow  upon  some  other  plant 
congenial  to  it.  In  the  northern  states  it  is  commonly  practiced 
to  propagate  plums  and  other  stone  fruits,  and  apples  and  pears, 
all  of  which  are  readily  increased  in  this  way.  The  varieties  of 
some  ornamental  trees  and  plants  may  be  propagated  by  budding, 
as  for  instance  some  varieties  of  elm,  maple,  poplar  and  birch. 
Most  trees  that  graft  readily  will  bud  as 
readily,  while  others  that  are  very  difficult 
to  graft  will  bud  very  easily.  Budding  is 
rather  a  simpler  operation  than  grafting, 
and  easier  for  the  beginner  to  perform  suc- 
cessfully. 

The  word  "stock"  is  used  to  designate 
the  plant  into  which  the  bud  is  inserted, 
and  for  success  it  must  be  of  the  same  or 
some  nearly  allied  species.  Stocks  are  gen- 
erally grown  from  seed  and  the  buds  are  in- 
serted in  them  before  they  are  five  years 
old,  and  as  near  the  ground  as  may  be.  But 
budding  may  be  done  very  successfully  on 
any  growing  branch  or  stem  where  the  bark 
is  not  too  hard  and  stiff  to  bend  easily.  It 
is  often  used  to  change  the  bearing  quali- 
ties of  fruit  trees  of  small  or  medium  size. 

Bud-stick  is  the  name  given  to  the 
shoots  from  which  the  buds  are  taken.  It 
is  also  referred  to  as  the  scion,  but  the  scion 
proper  is  the  piece  which  is  inserted  in  the 
stock.  In  Fig.  80  is  shown  at  D'  a  bud-stick 
prepared  for  use  by  cutting  off  all  but 
about  one-half  inch  of  the  stock  of  the  leaf,  FlG  ^_showir>q  Bud 
which  part  is  left  for  a  handle.  sticks. 


BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING.  109 

Time  for  Budding. — In  a  general  way,  budding  may  be 
done  at  any  time  when  the  bark  will  peel,  providing  the  buds  are 
sufficiently  matured  on  the  new  growth  of  the  season.  The  proper 
time  will  be  influenced  by  the  kind  of  stock  used,  the  season,  and 
sometimes  by  attacks  of  insects  and  diseases.  For  instance,  the 
native  plum  is  generally  budded  to  best  advantage  about  the  tenth 
of  August,  but  should  the  stocks  be  attacked  by  some  insect  or  dis- 
ease that  seriously  injures  the  foliage  in  the  latter  part  of  July  the 
growth  of  the  stocks  will  soon  be  checked,  and  the  work  must  be 
performed  at  once  or  not  at  all.  A  period  of  severe  drouth  may 
check  growth,  and  in  a  similar  way  make  early  budding  necessary. 
If  the  stocks  are  growing  very  fast  it  is  often  best  to  delay  the 
operation  until  the  wood  has  become  somewhat  hardened,  or  else 
its  rapid  growth  may  cover  up  the  inserted  bud.  If  considerable 
pruning  of  the  stocks  is  necessary  to  make  a  place  for  the  bud  it 
should  be  done  at  least  two  weeks  before  budding  is  commenced, 
for  the  heavy  pruning  of  any  plant  when  it  is  in  active  growth  re- 
sults in  a  serious  check  to  the  growth,  and  if  done  just  when  the 
buds  are  inserted  it  may  prevent  the  success  of  the  operation.  The 
ordinary  season  for  budding  in  the  northern  states  is  from  the 
middle  of  July  to  the  first  of  September,  and  the  earliness  or  late- 
ness at  which  a  variety  is  most  successfully  budded  depends  on  the 
condition  of  growth.  The  stocks  that  stop  growing  early  in  the 
season  are  budded  early,  and  those  that  grow  until  autumn  are 
budded  late.  The  conditions  for  success  are : 

(1)  The  stock  and  scion  must  be  perfectly  healthy  and  free  from  in- 
sects.   If  either  of  them  are  weak  or  sickly  unsatisfactory  results 
may  be  expected.    To  this  end  everything  necessary  should  be 
done  to  keep  off  insects  and  diseases. 

(2)  The  buds  should  be  well  developed  in,  the  axils  of  the  leaves  on  the 
young  shoots  from  which  the  bads  are  to  be  taken.     It  seldom  happens 
that  they  are  in  this  condition  until  the  bud  at  the  end  is  formed, 
but  sometimes  the  buds  in  the  center  of  the  twigs  will  be  large 
enough  to  grow,  while  those  at  the  base  and  at  the  extreme  tip  are 
still  quite  small.    In  Fig.  80  the  buds  shown  between  B  and  0  are 
supposed  to  be  mature  enough  for  budding,  while  those  at  the  base 
are  too  small,  and  those  at  the  tip,  beyond  the  cross-line,  are  too 
soft.    If  the  buds  are  thought  to  be  too  immature  they  may  readily 
be  developed  by  pinching  off  the  tips  of  the  twigs.    In  ten  or 
twelve  days  after  such  pinching,  of  even  a  very  soft  shoot,  its  buds 
will  be  fit  for  working. 

(3)  The  bark  must  separate  easily  from  the  ivood  on  the  stocks  to 
be  budded.    This  will  take  place  only  when  they  are  growing 
rapidly. 

(4)  A  sharp,  thin  knife  is  absolutely  necessary. 

(5)  The  work  mast  be  done  rapidly,  and  the  buds  firmly  and 
evenly  tied  into  place.    No  wax  is  needed. 


110 


BUDDING  AND   GRAFTING. 


Necessary  Implements.— A  common  shoe-knife  with  the 
corners  rounded  off,  as  shown  in  Fig.  81,  makes  a  very  cheap 
and  yet  a  most  excellent  budding  knife.  There  are  many  specially 

designed  forms  of 
knives  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  most  of 
them  have  an  ivory 

FIG.  81.-Beidd.iiy  Knife.  P°int  or  blade  in  the 

base  of   the   handle 

for  lifting  the  bark,  but  the  rounded  corner  of  the  back  of  the  shoe- 
knife  is  just  as  good  as  the  best  ivory  blade  for  raising  the  bark, 
and  a  shoe-knife  costs  not  one-fourth  as  much  as  an  ordinary  bud- 
ding knife,  and  generally  holds  an  edge  better. 

Besides  a  shoe-knife,  tying  material  is  necessary.  For  this 
purpose  basswood  bark  is  perhaps  the  best,  since  it  is  but  little 
affected  by  moisture,  and  if  put  on  wet  remains  tight  and  close. 
But  corn  husks,  cotton  warp  or  woolen  yarn  answers  very]  well, 
and  a  tying  material  called  rhaphe  is  largely  used  for  this  purpose, 
but  it  should  be  put  on  dry,  while  basswood  bark  should  be  used 
wet. 

BASSWOOD  TYING  MATERIAL  is  prepared  by  soaking  sections 
of  the  bark  in  water  until  the  inner  layers  separate  easily.  The 
bark  peels  from  the  trees  readily  in  June  and  July,  and  it  requires 
about  three  weeks  of  soaking  in  stagnant  water  to  get  the  fiber  in- 
to the  right  condition.  After  the  layers  readily  separate  the  bark 
should  be  stripped  into  pieces  about  one- fourth  of  an  inch  wide. 
If  hard  and  stiff  it  may  be  softened  by  rubbing  or  pounding  it. 

The  Process  of  Budding  will  be  found  illustrated  in  Fig- 
ures 82,  83,  84, 85  and^86,  which  show  the  successive  stages  in  shield 
budding,  which  is  the  form  generally  used  in  this  country.  When 
everything  is  ready  for  the  work  prepare  a  lot  of  bud-sticks,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  80,  by  cutting  off  all  but  about  one-half  inch  of  the 
leaf  stalks.  These  sticks  should  be  carefully  protected  from  wilt- 
ing, and  it  is  customary  to  carry  them  in  the  field  wrapped  up  in 
moist  cloth  or  oiled  paper.  If  it  is  necessary  to  store  them  after 
they  are  cut  they  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  moist  place  in  moes  or 
sawdust,  or  cloths,  but  not  in  water.  They  are  often  kept  for  a 
week  before  using,  but  should  be  used  as  soon  as  may  be  after  they 
are  cut. 

To  Insert  the  Bud  a  smooth  place  should  be  selected  (on 
small  stocks  this  should  be  about  two  inches  from  the  ground)  and 
3n  the  north  side  if  practicable,  since  buds  are  less  liable  to  be  in- 
jured by  freezing  on  that  side  than  on  any  other.  A  cross-cut  should 
be  made  at  this  point,  and  from  it  a  cut  about  1%  inches  long, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  82;  at  the  same  time  the  bark  should  be  raised,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  85.  A  bud-stick  is  then  taken  and  a  bud  cut  off  with 
^he  bark  and  a  thin  piece  of  wood  (Fig.  86>£)  extending  about  one- 
tialf  inch  above  and  below  the  bud,  as  shown  in  Fig.  83.  The  lower 


BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING. 


Ill 


FIG.  83. 


PIG.  84. 


FIG.  85. 


FIG. 


FIG  82  —  The  way  the  cuts  arc,  ma<le  in.  the.  stock.  FIG.  83.— The  bud  irhen 
cut  off':  see  from  under  vide.  FIG  84  — The  bark  raised  for  the,  insertion 
of  the  bud.  FIG.  85.—  The  bud  inserted.  FIG.  80.—  The  bud  lied  in  place. 


FIG  8654  —Shoiolng  the  wail  t»  which  the  bud  IK  c»t,  off  and  its  relative  size. 
The  i-.nshaded 'pa^f  around  the  bud  represent*  the  piece  of  bark  taken,  off 
w'.th  the  bud. 


112  BUDDING   AND   GRAFTING. 

point  of  the  bud  (by  which  is  meant  the  bark  and  wood  cut  off  as 
well  as  the  bud)  is  now  inserted  under  the  bark  at  the  cross-cut, 
and  is  gently  pushed  down  by  the  leaf  stock  and  knife  blade.  If 
the  bark  of  the  stock  will  not  raise  when  the  bud  is  thus  pushed 
down  the  stock  is  not  in  the  best  condition  for  budding,  and  it  will 
be  necessary  to  raise  the  bark  with  the  back  of  the  knife  blade,  or 
with  the  ivory  blade  previously  referred  to,  in  order  to  let  the  bud 
come  into  its  place.  The  sides  of  the  bud  should  come  under  the 
bark,  but  if  the  wound  is  not  large  enough  to  admit  quite  all  the 
bud,  any  small  part  that  may  project  above  the  cross-cut  should  be 
cut  off  by  again  drawing  the  knife  through  the  cross-cut.  The  bud 
must  now  be  securely  and  firmly  tied  in  place,  taking  care  to  draw 
it  down  evenly  and  firmly  and  to  cover  all  the  wounds  with  the 
tying  material  (Fig.  86),  but  not  to  draw  the  string  over  the  bud 
itself.  In  less  severe  sections  the  ties  do  not  need  such  careful 
attention  as  here  in  the  northwestern  states,  where  it  is  im- 
portant to  tie  very  carefully.  After  the  bud  is  tied  the  bands 
should  be  watched  so  that  when  the  growth  of  the  stock  becomes 
so  great  that  the  bands  are  too  tight  for  it  (which  is  generally  in 
about  a  week)  they  should  be  loosened,  and  when  the  bud  is  well 
united  the  band  should  be  cut  off  altogether.  The  buds  will  gener- 
ally unite  in  about  two  weeks,  but  sometimes  they  will  require  a 
longer  time,  and  it  is  often  desirable  to  leave  the  ties  on  for  some 
little  time  after  this  period.  It  is  a  bad  practice  to  neglect  the 
bands  and  allow  them  to  severely  cut  the  stock. 

The  inserted  buds  should  not  start  at  all  until  the  following 
spring.  If  they  start  into  growth  the  season  they  are  inserted  they 
are  almost  certain  to  be  killed  the  following  winter.  If  the  bark  of 
the  inserted  bud  shrivels,  or  if  it  remains  fresh  and  the  bud  falls 
off  the  work  is  entirely  lost,  though  the  stocks  that  have  missed 
one  ;/ear  may  be  budded  the  next,  and  even  while  loosening  the 
bands  it  may  not  be  too  late  to  again  bud  those  that  have  failed. 
To  make  the  work  more  certain  two  buds  are  often  inserted  in  each 
stock,  although  only  one  is  allowed  to  grow. 

In  the  spring  the  inserted  bud  will  resemble  Pig.  88.  Just  as 
the  buds  commence  to  swell  the  budded  stocks  should  be  cut  off  at 
least  one  inch  above  the  inserted  bud,  and  sometimes  seven  or  eight 
inches  of  the  old  sto~k  is  left  above  the  bud  to  serve  as  a  stake  to 
support  the  shoot  starting  from  the  bud  (Fig.  87).  All  the  shoots 
that  come  from  the  stock  should  be  rubbed  off  so  that  all  its 
strength  shall  go  into  the  inserted  bud  (Fig.  87). 

Late  in  the  season  the  stock  should  be  cut  down  to  just  above 
the  bud  as  shown  by  the  line  at  B  in  Fig.  87.  The  growing  shoot 
should  be  trained  to  a  single  stem  if  its  stock  is  a  low  one,  so  as  to 
make  a  straight  tree.  If  the  root  is  strong  the  bud  will  make  a 
growth  of  from  two  to  four  feet  the  first  year.  Some  kinds  of  trees 
readily  take  on  an  upright  form,  while  others  naturally  grow  very 
crooked  and  need  special  care  to  induce  them  to  grow  straight. 


BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING. 


113 


On  the  approach  of  winter  it  is  a  good  plan  to  draw  the  earth 
up  against  the  buds  as  a  protection,  but  this  cannot  be  done  when 
the  buds  are  more  than  two  or  three  inches  from  the  ground.  If 
the  buds  are  too  high  up  to  allow  of  this  earthing  up  from  the 
ground,  especially  in  the  case  of  somewhat  tender  kinds,  some 
growers  put  a  very  thin  covering  of  grafting  wax  around  the  bud, 
taking  care  not  to  cover  the  tip  of  the  bud  more  than  a  very  little. 
This  covering  is  a  protection  against  ice  forming  behind  the  bud 
and  from  sudden  freezing  and  thawing  in  winter.  However,  with 
our  hardy  trees  this  precaution  is  not  necessary. 


FIG.  87. 


FIG.  88. 


FIG. 


FIG.  W.  —  The  shoot  storting  from  the  bud  tied  to  a  portion  of  the  stock 
E—A.  The  line  B  indicates  where  the  s'ock  xhould  be  cut  off  late  in  the 
season  FIG.  88.— A  plum,  bud  in  the  spring  of  1893  before  growth  com- 
menced. FIG.  89.—  'J'?ie  tray  in  which  a  bud  should  be  cut  if  the  bark  is  to 
be  taken  oat.  A  form  not  used  much  in  this  country. 

June-Budding. — Many  eastern  nurserymen  offer  what  they 
call  June- budded  trees,  at  low  prices.  They  are  small  trees  that 
can  be  easily  sent  by  mail,  and  are  made  by  an  operation  similar  to 
common  budding,  as  described  herewith,  except  that  the  work  is 
done  in  June,  and  the  inserted  buds  are  forced  into  growth  as  soon 
as  they  adhere  to  the  stock  by  cutting  off  the  latter.  They  make 
only  a  small  growth  the  season  they  are  budded.  The  buds  for  this 


114 


BUDDING   AND   GRAFTING. 


purpose  may  be  hastened  in  maturing  by  pinching  in  the  ends  of 
the  shoots  to  be  used  for  bud-sticks.  For  ordinary  purposes  noth- 
ing is  gained  by  budding  in  June,  for  a  plant  budded  in  August 
will  make  as  large,  if  not  a  larger,  growth  by  the  end  of  the  follow- 
ing year  than  a  June- budded  tree  of  the  same  age  will  make  in  its 
two  years  of  growth,  and  will  make  a  straighter  tree. 

The  bark  is  removed  from  the  bud  after  it  is  cut  off  by  some 
budders,  but  in  general  practice  in  this  country  it  is  left  on.  How- 
ever, care  should  be  used  not  to  cut  the  bud  very  thick,  or  the  large 
amount  of  wood  in  it  will  prevent  its  binding  into  place  smoothly 
and  evenly.  When  the  wood  is  to  be  removed  from  the  bud  the 
latter  is  cut  off  in  a  little  different  way  from  the  method  des- 
cribed, and  the  way  this  is  done  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  89.  The  c'~ts 
A  and  B  are  made  in  order  and  by  a  dexterous  twist  the  bud  and 
bark  removed.  It  is  then  inserted  as  previously  described. 

Other  Forms  of  Budding  are  used  occasionally,  but  in  all 
of  them  the  same  general  laws,  as  laid  down  for  shield  budding, 
are  necessary  for  success.  Figure  90  shows  what  is  called  flute 

budding,  to  perform  which 

the  bark  of  the  stock  is  cut 

out  to  exactly  fit  the  bark 

of  the  bud  to  be  inserted. 

Figure  91  shows  a  form  of 

budding  wherein  a  circle 

of  bark  is  taken  out  of  the 

bud-stick  and  inserted  into 

a  stock  or  branch  of  about 

the  same  size.    These  are 
I  unusual   forms    and    only 

used  for  some  special  pur- 
pose.     In  budding  on  the 

branches  of  trees  it  is  gen- 
erally best  to   insert   the     I"' 

bud  on  the  upper  side,  but 

the  place  for  its  insertion 


FIG.  90. 
Flute  Budding 


FIG.  91. 
Ring  Budding. 


should  be  governed  by  the  form  of  the  tree.  Budded  trees  are  no 
better  than  grafted  trees,  but  they  may  be  as  good,  or  perhaps 
worse,  according  to  the  way  in  which  the  work  is  done.  If  the 
buds  and  stocks  are 
perfectly  hardy,  as  for 
instance  when  our  na- 
tive plum  seedlings  are 
budded  with  similar 
kinds  of  improved  qual- 
ity, as  with  the  DeSoto 
plum,  then  the  tree  re- 
sulting is  as  good  as  if 

root-grafted.     But    if       Y^.  <d-.- At  work  inserting  buds  near  the 
the  hardy  kinds  of  ap-  ground  on   small  stocks. 


BUDDING   AND   GRAFTING.  115 

pie  are  budded  on  ordinary  seedling,  which  are  mostly  not  hardy, 
then  there  is  a  part  of  the  tender  seedling  which  is  above  ground 
and  is  liable  to  be  killed  out  by  cold.  In  this  case  the  resulting 
tree  would  be  much  improved  if  the  seedling  root  had  been  grafted 
below  ground  instead  of  being  budded  above,  so  as  to  have  the  ben- 
efit of  the  protection  the  ground  afforded.  On  the  other  hand 
where  hardy  trees  are  budded  on  the  branches  to  change  the  bear- 
ing the  work  is  just  as  sure  as  if  grafted.  It  is  foolish,  then,  to 
pay  more  money  for  a  budded  than  a  grafted  tree. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 


GRAFTING. 


is  distinguished  from  budding  by  being  performed 
at  a  season  of  the  year,  generally  in  the  spring,  when  vegeta- 
tion is  dormant— at  least  when  the  plant  operated  upon  is  not 
in  full  leaf;  but  there  are  many  exceptions  to  such  a  definition, 
and  it  might  be  better  to  include  the  two  subjects  of  budding  and 
grafting  under  the  general  head  of  graftage,  as  they  are  closely 
related.  It  is  the  object  of  this  chapter  to  discuss  some  of  the 
methods  of  grafting  as  used  in  the  propagation  of  fruits. 

Limits  of  Grafting.— It  is  quite  common  to  hear  very  sur- 
prising stories  about  grafting.  Quite  lately  a  prominent  grape 
grower  referred  to  his  efforts  to  graft  the  red  currant  on  the  red 
maple  tree.  Even  Pliny  says :  "Some  apples  are  so  red  that  they 
resemble  blood,  which  is  caused  by  their  being  grafted  on  a  mul- 
berry stock."  But  grafting  or  budding  is  never  successful  unless 
the  graft  and  stock  are  nearly  allied,  and  the  closer  the  relation- 
ship between  them  the  more  certain  the  success.  Snidley  says : 
"Varieties  of  the  same  species  unite  most  freely ;  then  species  of  the 
same  genus,  then  genera  of  the  same  natural  order,  beyond  which 
the  power  does  not  extend."  For  instance:  pears  work  freely  on 
pears ;  very  well  on  quinces  and  mountain  ash ;  less  successfully 
on  apples  or  thorns,  and  not  at  all  upon  plums  and  cherries ;  while 
the  lilac  will  take  on  the  ash,  because  of  the  near  relationship  be- 
tween the  two.  But  there  are  many  exceptions  to  any  rule  that 
could  be  laid  down  concerning  this  matter.  Some  plants  are  in- 
creased most  readily  by  budding,  while  others  graft  more  easily 
than  they  are  budded.  The  stone  fruits  are  very  easily  budded, 
but  grafting  them  is  a  much  more  uncertain  operation. 

.Stock  is  the  term  used  to  indicate  the  plant  grafted  upon, 
whether  large  or  small. 

Scion  is  the  term  used  to  express  the  part  inserted,  of  what- 
ever size  or  form  it  may  consist.  These  should  be  of  the  new,  well 
ripened  growth  of  the  season.  If  scions  are  to  be  used  in  the 
spring  they  should  always  be  cut  late  in  the  fall,  as  they  are  liable 
to  be  injured  by  the  winter.  However,  spring  cut  scions  may 
116 


BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING.  117 

often  be  used  successfully,  but  it  is  not  safe  to  trust  to  them,  espe- 
cially if  when  cut  open  the  heart  wood  appears  dark  colored. 
Scions  should  not  be  cut  when  frozen.  They  should  be  stored  in 
moist  sawdust  or  sand  in  a  cold  cellar,  or  buried  in  the  ground  out- 
doors during  winter.  Cherry  scions  are  most  safely  carried 
through  the  winter  when  packed  in  moist  leaves.  If  packed  in 
sand  or  sawdust  they  sometimes  become  water-soaked. 

The  Principles  which  under  ie  grafting  are  the  same  as  in 
budding,  i.  e,,  the  scion  and  stock  must  be  closely  related;  the 
work  must  be  done  in  such  a  manner  that  the  inside  bark  of  both 
scion  and  stock  come  closely  in  contact ;  and  at  a  season  of  the 
year,  and  under  such  circumstances,  that  they  may  unite  at  once, 
or  as  soon  as  growth  starts.  The  success  of  the  operation  largely 
depends  (1)  on  having  the  stock  and  scion  perfectly  healthy;  (2)  in 
selecting  the  proper  season,  which  varies  somewhat  with  different 
plants ;  (3)  in  getting  a  perfect  union  of  the  inner  barks  of  scion 
and  stock  at  least  on  one  side ;  (4)  in  making  all  the  cuts  with  a 
sharp  knife,  that  the  parts  in  contact  may  have  a  smooth  surface ; 
(5)  in  doin,g  the  work  rapidly,  so  that  the  surface  may  not  be 
exposed. 

Grafting  Wax  is  generally  used  for  covering  the  wounds 
made  in  grafting.  A  gord  grafting  wax  is  one  that  will  not 
become  too  soft  in  summer,  so  as  to  melt  and  run  down  the  stock, 
or  so  hard  in  winter  as  to  crack  and  split  off.  A  very  reliable 
grafting  wax  is  made  by  melting  together:  resin  four  (4)  parts,  by 
weight ;  beeswax,  two  (2)  parts ;  tallow,  one  (1)  part.  When  well 
melted  pour  into  a  pail  of  cold  water,  grease  the  hands  slightly  and 
pull  the  wax  until  it  is  about  the  color  of  pulled  molasses  candy. 
Make  into  balls  and  store  for  use.  This  wax  should  be  warmed 
when  applied.  If  it  is  too  hard  more  tallow  and  less  resin  may  be 
used.  Some  propagators  use  linseed  oil  instead  of  tallow. 

Clay  is  frequently  used  for  covering  wounds  made  by  grafting, 
and  it  gives  quite  as  good  results  as  any  of  the  waxes,  if  pioperly 
applied.  For  this  purpose  some  very  tenacious  clay  should  be  used, 
and  it  is  thought  to  be  improved  when  mixed  with  about  one-third 
fresh  cow  dung  and  a  little  plasterers'  hair.  The  whole  mass 
should  be  thoroughly  worked  over  before  using. 

Cleft  Grafting  is  a  very  common  form  of  grafting,  and  is 
mere  universally  known  and  used  than  any  other.  It  is  commonly 
performed  to  change  the  bearing  of  apple,  plum  and  various  other 
trees  and  plants.  It  is  generally  the  a. 

most  practical    method  to  use  on 

A ,  .       ,  . UlllI 

branches   two   or   three   inches    in  ~ 

diameter,  but  it  also  works  well  on 
quite  small  stocks. 

The  tools  used  are  a  sharp,  fine          FlG  ^.-Grafting  chisel. 
saw  and  a  grafting   chisel,   a  good 

pattern  for  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  93  where  a  represents  blade  for 
splitting  the  stick ;  6,  the  wedge-shape  end  for  holding  the  cleft 


118 


BUDDING   AND   GRAFTING. 


cleft  held  open  with  wedge-shaped 
end  of  grafting  chisel. 


open ;  ana  c,  a  hook  by  which  the  tool  may  be  hung  on  some  con- 
venient branch. 

Cleft  grafting  is  performed  as  follows :    The  place  selected  for 

the  insertion  of  the  scion  should  be  where  the  grain  of  wood  is 

straight.    The  stock  is  then  cut 

"square"  off  with  a  sharp  saw 

and  is  split  through  its  center, 

with   the   grafting   chisel,    to   a 

depth  sufficient  to  allow  the  scion 

to  be  put  in  place.    The  cleft  is 

held  open  by  the  chisel  (Fig.  94) 

until  the  scion   (Fig.  95)  is  cut 

and  inserted,  when  the  wedge  is 

withdrawn,  allowing  the  stock  to    FlG-  ?*:-s.tock  cut  9ff  and.  8PM  «»<? 

close  on  the  scion  and  so  hold  it 

in  place.    If  the  stock  does  not 

spring  back  so  as  to  hold  the  scion  firmly  it  should  be 
tightly  drawn  together  with  a  string.  The  numbers 
of  scions  inserted  will  depend  on  the  size  of  the  stock. 
If  the  stock  is  not  over  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  one  scion  is  enough  to  insert,  but  on  larger 
stocks  two  may  be  put  in.  All  the  cut  surfaces,  in- 
cluding the  ends  of  the  scions,  should  now  be  covered 
with  wax,  as  shown  in  Fig.  99. 

The  Scion  to  be  inserted  in  cleft  grafting  should 
be  cut  wedge-shaped  lengthwise,  as  shown  in  Fig.  95, 
and  its  cross-section  should  resemble  Fig.  96,  in  which 
a  shows  the  outer  bark  and  b  the  inner.  Figure  97 
represents  a  cross-section  through  a  newly  made 
graft,  showing  cleft  in  the  stock  and  two  scions  in 
place  (note  how  the  edges  of  the  wood  come  together). 
Figure  98  represents  the  scion  and  graft  as  seen  in 
perspective.  Figure  99  shows  the  appearance  of  the 
graft  when  completed  and 
covered  with  wax. 

Whip  Grafting  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  100,  in  which  A 
represents  the  stock  with  a 
slit  at  a;  B  the  scion  with  a 
slit  at  b ;  (1  the  scion  and  stock 
put  together.  When  finished 
all  the  cut  surfaces  should  be 

*»&!»•*  covered  with  grafting  wax  as  Pl(j  %  __  Cr08S.secfion 
shown  in  Fig.  99.  In  this  of  wedge-shaped  end  of 
form  of  grafting  it  is  seldom  scion. 

that  the  inner  barks  come  together  on  more  than  one  side  of  scion 

and  stock.    It  is  a  method  that  is  very  quickly  performed  by  one 

accustomed  to  it,  but  its  use  is  limited  to  branches  or  stems  under 

three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  but  for  stocks  coming  within 


FIG. 


scion  cut 

for 

Hon. 


BUDDING  AND   GRAFTING. 


119 


FIG.  9~.—Vross-section  through  a  graft 
cleft  and  scion  in  place. 


this  limit  it  is  very  convenient.  It  is  much  used  by  nurserymen  in 
root-grafting  apple,  pear  and  plum  seedlings.  It  is  done  to  a  large 
extent  during  the  winter  months,  when  but  very  little  can  be 
accomplished  out  of  doors.  It  is  performed  as  follows : 

Root-Grafting. — Seedlings   which  are  dug  in  autumn  and 

packed  in  moss  or  saw- 
dust in  a  cold  cellar, 
are  taken  as  needed  to 
a  warm  room  and  the 
scions  grafted  upon 
them  just  below  the  col- 
lar, i.  e.,  the  place 
where  root  and  top  are 
•joined.  The  kind  of 
f?raftmade  is  illustrat- 
ed in  Fig.  101,  which 
shows  the  successive 
stages  of  the  work.  A 
shows  a  seedling  apple 
root  with  top  removed, 
which  is  to  be  cut  off 
and  grafted  at  the  cross 
£  shows  scion ;  G 
scion  and  stock  pre- 
pared for  being  united,  but  with  the  cut  held  open.  This  cut  is 
made  by  the  knife-blade,  and  no  wood  is  removed  from  it.  Z>,  the 
same  united.  E,  the  union  wrapped  with  a  strip  of  paper  or  cloth 
which  has  previously  been  covered  with 
grafting  wax.  Some  prefer  waxed  string 
for  this  covering.  The  grafts  should  be 
about  eight  inches  long.  When  completed 
they  should  be  tied  in  bundles  and  put 
away,  packed  very  firmly  in  sand  or  light 
soil,  in  a  cold  cellar.  Early  in  the  spring 
they  should  be  planted  in  the  nursery, 
about  six  inches  apart,  in  rows  three  feet 
apart,  setting  all  but  the  upper  bud  of  the 
scion  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It 
is  important  to  plant  the  scion  deep  so  as 
to  encourage  it  to  throw  ©ut  roots,  as  the 
trees  are  then  more  hardy  than  when  they 
depend  entirely  on  the  seedling  root  for 
support.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to 
have  the  soil  very  firm  and  solid  around  the  base  of  the  root  and  at 
the  union.  This  may  be  secured  in  several  ways.  Some  nursery- 
men attain  this  end  by  the  use  of  a  large  dibber,  having  a  guard  on 
the  side  to  prevent  its  going  too  deep.  With  this  a  hole  is  made 
sufficiently  wide  and  deep  to  permit  the  insertion  of  the  graft 


FIG.  98.— Perspective 
vieiv  of  scion  and  com- 
pleted graft. 


120 


BUDDING   AND   GBAFTING. 


easily  so  tnat  not  more  than  one  or  two  buds  project  above  the 
ground.  To  do  this  work  most  expeditiously  the  grafts  should  all 
be  of  the  same  length  and  free  from  side  branches.  Two  persons 
should  work  together,  a  man  who  uses  the  dibber  and  a  boy  who 
carries  the  grafts.  The  man  makes  a  hole  with  the  dibber,  the 
boy  puts  in  a  graft,  when  the  man  immediately  makes  another  hole 
by  the  side  of  and  two  inches  away  from  that  containing  the  graft, 
and  pressing  towards  the  graft  packs  the  soil  firmly  around  it. 
After  each  row  is  finished  in  this  way  the  man  should  turn  back  on 
the  row  and  press  firmly  by  the  side  of  each  graft  with  the  ball  of 
the  foot. 


FIG.  99.—  Graft  covered  wi'h 
wax.    AA,  scions;  B,  wax. 


FIG.  100.—  A.  stock;  B,  scion;  C,  scion 
and  stock  united. 


Another  method  of  planting  root  grafts  which  is  as  applicable 
for  planting  cuttings  on  a  small  scale  is  as  follows.  It  is  not  a  fast 
method,  but  a  very  excellent  one  for  a  few  grafts  :  The  thoroughly 
plowed  land  is  smoothed  off,  a  line  stretched  and  walked  where  the 
row  is  to  come  and  then  thrown  to  one  side.  With  a  spade  throw 
out  a  furrow  along  the  line,  leaving  the  edge  straight  and  smooth. 
Against  this  place  the  grafts,  and  then  with  a  hoe  turned  bottom 
up  push  a  little  earth  against  the  lower  part  of  the  root  of  each 
graft,  and  afterwards  draw  three  inches  of  soil  into  the  furrow 


BUDDING   AND   GRAFTING. 


around  the  grafts  and  then  press  firmly  against  each  graft  with 
the  ball  of  the  foot.  Fill  the  trench  full  and  repeat  the  footing 
process  again.  A  more  expeditious  way  is  to  plow  out  a  furrow 
instead  of  making  it  with  a  spade,  and  then  fill  the  trench  v  ith  a 
plow.  In  this  way  the  work  may  be  successfully  done  if  the  soil  is 
not  dry  and  the  season  is  favorable.  But  it  pays  well  to  do  good 
work,  and  where  one  has  only  a  few  hundred  or  a  thousand  grafts 
to  plant  the  spade  method  is  most  certain.  In  planting  in  a  dry 
time  the  great  key  to  success  is  to  have  the  land  firm  and  solid 

around  the  root  and  the 
union  so  that  there  will 
be  no  airspace.  This 
is  very  important.  In 
two  or  three  years  from 
the  root-graft  the  trees 
will  be  large  enough  to 
be  transplanted  to  the 
orchard.  The  kind  of 
roots  which  they  will 
bear  at  this  time  is 
well  illustrated  in  Pig. 
50.  In  this  figure  A 
shows  a  tree  which  has 
been  ruined  by  improp- 
er digging;  B  and  G 
trees  that  have  rooted 
from  the  scion  and 
have  lost  the  original 
root  stocks. 

Side  Grafting.— 
Side  grafting  is  illus- 
trated in  Pig.  102,  in 
which  a  represents  the 
scion,  b  shows  the  stock 
prepared  for  the  scion, 
c  the  graft  made,  and  d 
the  same  covered  with 
wax.  This  form  of 

FIG.  l*.-Root  grafting  illustrated.  A,  stock;  ^fting  is  especially 
£,  scion;  a,  scion  and  stock  prepared;  D,  applicable  to  cherry 
graif  made;  E,  graft  completed  and  wrapped  seedlings,  on  which 
with  'waxed  cloth.  union  ghould 


at  the  crown  of  the  plant,  which  is  just  below  the  surface  of  the 
land.  This  form  of  grafting  may  be  successfully  used  on  plums, 
apples,  and  other  fruits.  If  it  is  done  on  the  branches  of  a  tree 
there  is  no  necessity  of  cutting  off  the  part  above  the  graft  until 
the  scion  starts  into  growth. 

Grafting  Below  Ground.—  If  gracing  is  done  just  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground  the  work  13  much  more  certain  of  being 


122 


BUDDING   AND   GRAFTING. 


successful  than  if  above  the  surface,  and  the  resulting  tree  will  be 
hardier  than  if  the  union  were  above  ground,  since  the  weakest 
point  in  a  tree  (the  graft)  will  be  protected  by  the  earth.  Of 
course  very  frequently  it  is  impracticable  to  do  the  work  in  this 
manner.  Figure  103  shows  a  grape  root  so  grafted.  The  methods 
adapted  for  grafting  below  ground  are  the  same  as  for  above 
ground,  only  not  so  much  wax  is  required. 

In  grafting  below  ground  it  is  important  to  remove  the  soil 
until  a  smooth  straight  part  is  found  of  sufficient  length  to  contain 
the  scion.  It  is  impor- 
tant, also,  to  keep  the  ~ 
wounds  free  from  dirt, 
for  however  much  it 
may  help  to  have  the 
whole  graft  covered  in 
this  way,  any  soil  on 
the  cut  surfaces  will 
prevent  that  desirable 
close  contact  of  the  cells 
which  is  necessary  for 
successful  work.  When 
grafting  is  done  below 
ground  suckers  w  ill 
often  start  from  the 
stock  in  great  numbers. 
These  should  be  all  re- 
moved or  the  graft  will 
be  ruined.  A  little  ob- 
servation soon  teaches 
one  to  distinguish  at  a 
glance  the  sprouts  from 
the  stock  from  the 
scion.  In  removing 
these  suckers  they 
should  be  pulled  away 
from  the  stock  and  not 
simply  cut  off.  Only 
one  shoot  should  be  per- 
mittee to  grow  from 
each  scion,  and  this 
should  be  the  thriftiest  FIG.  1Q2.— Side-grafting  as  practical  on  cherry 
a,  scion;  b.  stock;  c.  graft  maae;  d,  graft 


covered  with  wax. 


and    generally    that 
starting    lowest    down. 
The  lowest  is  saved  because  wherever  a  shoot  starts  there  is  gen- 
erally a  crook  formed,  and  if  near  the  ground  it  is  not  unsightly. 

Night  Cap  is  a  term  given  to  signify  a  paper  bag  that  is 
sometimes  drawn  over  and  tied  below  the  graft  as  soon  as  it  is 
completed.  It  is  well  illustrated  in  Fig.  1.04.  Its  use  is  to  prevent 
the  shriveling  of  the  scion  due  to  exposure  to  drying  winds.  It  is 


BUDDING   AND    GRAFTING. 


especially  desirable  in  top-grafting  trees  in  dry  seasons  or  in  ex- 
posed locations.  It  is  a  very  valuable  adjunct  to  the  graftiag  outfit 
and  its  use  should  be  more  general.  Of  course  the  bags  should  be 
removed  as  soon  as  the  scions  start,  and  the  same  care  should  be 
taken  in  the  use  of  wax  around  the  graft  as  if  the  night  cap  was 
cot  used. 

The  following  notes  on  grafting  different  fruits  will  perhaps  be 
of  interest: 

Grafting  Apples.— Apples  in  the  open  ground  should  be 
grafted  about  the  time  the  buds  are  nicely  started,  but  the  scions 
should  not  have  started  at  all.  It  is  the  easiest  of  all  the  fruits  to 
graft,  and  almost  any  method  may  be  used  successfully  on  it.  The 
scions  should  be  from  four  to  six  inches  long. 

Grafting  tue  Plum.— The  plum  is  most  successfully  grafted 
very  early  in  the  spring— even  before  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground 

or  a  bud  has  commenced  to 
swell.  The  work  when 
done  at  this  time  is  gener- 
ally successful,  though  not 
as  certain  as  the  apple.  It 
is  said  that  the  plum  may 
be  grafted  very  successful- 
ly later  in  the  spring,  even 
after  the  buds  have  com- 
menced to  swell,  providing 
the  buds  on  the  scion  are 
started  as  much  as  those 
on  the  stock  at  the  time 
the  work  is  performed. 

The  plum  may  bo  quite 
successfully  root-grafted 
in  the  house  in  winter,  as 
recommended  for  the  apple 
and  treated  the  same  way, 
but  it  generally  takes  a 
year  longer  to  get  the  tree 
formed,  since  in  this  case  the  growth  from  the  scion  is  quite 
slow  the  first  t^o  years. 

On  account  of  the  slow  growth  trees  grown  in  this  way  are 
often  crooked  and  unpromising.  This  defect,  however,  may  be 
remedied  by  cutting  away  in  the  early  spring  of  the  second  year 
all  the  growth  from  the  scion  except  one  strong  bud  at  ics  base.  If 
this  work  is  done  very  early  in  the  spring  it  will  result  in  throwing 
the  whole  strength  of  the  root  into  a  single  bud  and  the  forming  of 
a  stem  that  is  straight  in  place  of  the  former  crooked  one.  A  much 
better  and  more  satisfactory  plan  than  root-grafting  is  to  plant  the 
stocks  in  the  nursery  one  year  before  they  are  intended  to  be 
grafted,  and  then  graft  them  below  tho  surface  of  the  ground  very 
early  in  the  spring.  For  this  purpose  cleii  or  whip-grafting  should 


FIG.  103.— Grape  vine  roof  .grafted. 


134 


BUDDING    AND   GRAFTING. 


be  used.  When  the  work  is  done  in  this  way  the  resu  t  is  a  very 
strong  growth  from  the  scion.  If  the  suckers  are  pinched  off  and 
the  whole  strength  of  the  root  forced  into  one  shoot,  the  result,  on 
rich  land  and  in  the  case  of  strong,  healthy  stocks,  will  be  to  give 
a  growth  often  exceeding  four  feet  in  height.  Sometimes  the 
growth  in  this  latter  case  will  be  so  heavy  that  the  branches  are 
liable  to  be  broken  off  in  the  wind,  and  should  be  tied  to  stakes 
with  soft  string.  The  scions  should  be  from  four  to  six  inches  long. 

Grafting  the  Cherry. — The  cherry  may  be  root-grafted  in- 
doors in  the  winter.  When  this  is  done  what  is  called  side-grafting 
is  employed,  and  it  gives  results  far  ahead  of  any  other  method. 
But  with  the  best  of  care  the  losses  from  in-door  grafting  of  this 
fruit  makes  it  very  unsatisfactory.  Much  better  results  will  be 
achieved  by  side-grafting  them  at  the  crown  of  the  plant  on  stocks 
well  established  in  the  open  ground,  as  in  the  plan  recommended 
for  propagating  the  plum.  In  regard  to  this 
fruit  it  is  also  reported  that,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  plum,  the  work  may  be  done  after  the 
stocks  start  into  growth  a  little,  providing  the 
scions  are  as  far  advanced.  The  scions  should 
be  from  four  to  six  inches  long. 

Grafting  the  Grape  is  done  most  safely 
very  early  in  the  spring,  even  before  a  sign  of 
growth  appears,  but  it  may  also  be  grafted 
about  the  time  the  first  leaves  are  nicely  ex- 
panded, if  the  scions  are  kept  dormant  until 
that  time.  The  work  should  always  be  done 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Any  form 
of  graft  may  be  used,  but  that  most  commonly 
used  is  cleft-grafting,  as  shown  in  Fig.  103, 
In  making  a  cleft-graft  upon  a  grape  root  It  is 
often  necessary  to  saw  the  cleft  in  the  stock 
with  a  fine  saw  on  account  of  the  crooked, 
twisted  grain  of  the  wrod,  which  does  not 
allow  it  to  split  straight.  Some  growers  do 
not  use  any  wax  around  the  graft  but  simply 
cover  it  with  a  mound  of  well  packed  earth  up 
to  the  upper  bud  of  the  scion.  In  grafting 
after  \he  leaves  are  expanded  some  propaga-  FIG.  104.—  Grafted 
tors  prefer  to  use  side-grafting,  and  do  not  Plum  «'^  graft 
cut  the  vine  severely  until  it  is  believed  the  ^ 
scion  has  grown  fast  to  the  stock,  when  the 
vine  is  cut  entirely  away.  Whip-grafting  is  also  used  for  this 
purpose.  The  scions  should  be  about  six  or  eight  inches  long. 

To  change  the  varieties  in  a  vineyard  it  is  sometimes  practiced 
1  o  graft  on  a  cane  from  the  old  vine.  In  this  case  a  cane  from  the 
old  vine  long  enough  to  reach  nearly  midway  between  the  vine  is 
grafted  with  a  scion  which  should  be  at  least  two  feet  long.  When 
grafted  the  graft,  including  the  cane  and  scion,  should  be  buried 


BUDDING   AND    GRAFTING.  125 

six  inches  deep,  the  end  bud  of  the  scion  being  brought  above 
ground  where  the  new  vine  is  desired.  The  following  year  the  old 
vine  may  be  largely  cut  away  and  the  growth  from  the  scion  will 
take  its  place.  This  method  is  not  so  neat  as  when  the  vine  is  cut 
off  and  grafted  below  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  it  has  the 
merit  of  being  very  much  more  certain  of  not  necessitating  the 
destruction  of  the  old  vine  until  a  new  one  is  established. 

Grafting  by  Approach  or  Inarching  is  a  form  of  grafting 
in  which  the  branches  of  growing  plants  are  brought  together.  It 
is  sometimes  used  to  change  the  bearing  of  vines  or  trees,  or  to 
grow  two  branches  or  stems  together.  It  is  much  used  in  propa- 
gating such  ornamental  trees  as  cut-leaved  and  purple  birches.  It 
may  be  done  at  any  time  during  the  growing  season  and  on  any 
flexible  growth  of  whatever  age.  It  is  performed  by  shaving  out  a 
piece  of  bark  and  wood  from  the  stock  and  from  the  scion,  of  the 
same  size  and  in  such  a  way  that  the  inner  barks  of  each  may  be 
together.  If  this  is  done  even  so  late  as  the  middle  of  July  they 
will  grow  firmly  together  before  winter.  It  is  customary  when 
this  method  is  to  be  used  for  propagation  to  either  plant  a  lot  of 
small  plants  around  the  one  from  which  the  scions  are  to  come,  or 
to  grow  them  in  pots  and  set  pots  and  plants  near  by.  When  the 
branches  have  united  they  are  permitted  to  grow  until  autumn, 
when  the  scions  are  cut  off  just  below  the  union  and  the  plants 
with  the  scions  on  them  are  heeled  in  for  winter  or  protected  in 
some  other  way.  No  wax  is  needed  as  the  union  is  very  sure  if  the 
parts  are  closely  tied  together.  This  is  a  very  safe  and  sure 
method  and  is  easily  performed,  even  by  the  novice. 


APPENDIX. 

BY  PROFESSOR  J.  L.  BUDD. 

1TMHE  following  list  of  apples  is  by  Professor  J.  L,  Budd,  of 
I^SK,  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College,  whose  efforts  in  connection 
with  the  introduction  of  hardy  fruits  for  the  Northwestern 
States  have  given  him  a  national  reputation.  This  list  comprises 
the  varieties  which  he  considers  the  hardiest  and  best  adapted  to 
the  extreme  north.  Many  of  these  kinds  cannot  be  obtained  of  the 
general  nurserymen,  but  the  list  is  of  great  value  in  showing  the 
direction  which  progressive  horticulture  is  taking  in  the  extreme 
north  and  as  a  guide  for  future  planting.  It  is  especially  valuable 
for  parties  living  in  sections  corresponding  to  Northern  Iowa,  and 
perhaps  Southern  Minnesota. 


-A.  F  I3  Li  B  S . 

SUMMER  VARIETIES. 

BLUSHED  CALVILLE.  (22  M.)  This  at  the  West  will  prove 
more  valuable  than  Yellow  Transparent.  The  tree  is  much  har- 
dier, more  nearly  free  from  blight,  and  the  fruit  is  about  as  early, 
as  large  in  size,  is  handsomely  blushed,  and  it  is  less  perishable 
and  better  in  quality. 

BKESKOVKA.  (152  M.)  Some  later  than  the  above  and  a  very 
regular  and  full  bearer.  Fruit  in  size,  color  and  shape  much  like 
Grimes  Golden.  Quality  best  for  kitchen  use  and  very  good  for 
dessert. 

PLODOVITKA.    Very  early  and  profitable  at  the  North. 

ANISETTE.  (No.  185.)  Of  the  Duchess  family  and  hardier  at 
the  North.  An  annual  and  full  bearer  of  fruit  like  Duchess,  but 
finer  in  grain,  less  acid  and  earlier.  Will  prove  valuable  over  a 
large  part  of  the  United  States. 

REVEL  PEAB.  (No.  379.)  A  heavy  bearer  of  fair  sized  hand- 
some fruit  for  home  use  or  market. 

BOROVINKA.     (No.  245.)    Of  the  Duchess  family.    Fruit  almost 
identical  with  Duchess,  but  a  better  keeper. 
126 


APPENDIX.  127 

LUBSK  QUEBN.  (No.  444.)  As  hardy  as  Duchess  and  noted 
for  heavy  and  continuous  bearing.  Fruit  large,  smooth,  with 
varied  shades  of  red  and  pink.  Flesh  fine  grained,  sub-acid  and 
very  good  for  so  large  a  fruit.  This  is  placed  with  the  summer 
apples  because  it  colors  up  early  and  ships  well  at  an  early  date, 
but  it  keeps  well  at  the  fruit  stands  and  can  be  easily  kept  through 
September. 

AUTUMN  APPLES. 

ROSY  REPKA.  (No.  300. )  An  iron-clad  tree  everywhere.  Fruit 
large,  even  sized,  handsomely  colored,  sub-acid,  and  excellent  in 
quality.  Will  be  a  popular  market  apple.  Season  autumn,  or 
early  winter  on  the  north  limit  of  its  possible  growth. 

HIBERNAL.  (No.  378.)  Hardier  than  Duchess  and  fuiiy  equal 
in  bearing  and  perfection  of  tree  on  varied  soils.  Fruit  large,  even 
sized,  handsomely  colored  and  of  best  quality  for  culinary  use. 
This  will  prove  a  popular  market  apple  for  kitchen  use  during  the 
fall  and  early  winter.  It  has  some  value  for  dessert  use  when 
fully  matured  and  the  skin,  which  has  a  crab-like  flavor,  is  re- 
moved. 

KEIV  REINETTE.  (No.  447.)  Hardier  than  Duchess  at  the 
North.  Fruit  large,  smooth,  yellow,  with  crimson  splashes,  and  a 
rich  bloom.  Valuable  for  all  uses.  Season,  late  fall  and  early 
winter. 

GIPSY  GIRL.  (56  Vor.)  A  fine  tree  in  nursery  and  orchard. 
Fruit  large,  smooth  and  remarkably  handsome.  A  famous  train- 
boy  apple  in  East  Europe.  Will  be  prized  over  a  large  part  of  the 
country.  Season,  late  fall. 

MALLETT.  (No.  980.)  As  imported  by  the  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture this  has  the  name  of  White  Pelikanoff.  The  fruit  is  not 
white,  but  is  much  like  Wealthy  in  size,  shape,  color  and  quality. 
Its  true  name  is  Mallett.  Though  classed  with  the  fall  apples  it  is 
a  remarkable  keeper  after  it  becomes  tender  enough  for  dessert 
use.  As  grown  at  the  North,  we  have  eaten  the  fruit  in  fine  condi- 
tion in  March. 

LARGE  ANIS.  (No.  413  Department )  This  was  imported  by 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  under  the  name  of  Cross  apple.  It 
is  an  iron-clad  tree  in  all  respects,  a  heavy  and  continuous  bearer, 
.\nd  a  valuable  late  fall  and  early  winter  apple  of  good  size  and  ex- 
cellent quality. 

ANTONOVKA.  This  is  an  iron-clad  tree  and  an  early  and  con- 
tinuous bearer  of  large  yellow  apples  that  will  take  well  in  market 
and  prove  valuable  for  home  use.  Its  fault  is  tendency  to  blight 
on  black  soils  and  in  sheltered  localities,  but  it  is  not  more  subject 
to  blight  than  the  Yellow  Transparent.  Season,  late  fall  and  early 
winter. 

APORT  ORIENT.  This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  varieties  of 
the  Alexander  family.  Fruit  very  large,  gorgeously  colored,  and 
of  excellent  quality  for  an  apple  of  its  size. 


128  APPENDIX. 

GOLDEN  RBINETTE.  This  has  not  proven  true  to  name  as  re- 
ceived from  the  Bogdanoff  estates,  in  Russia.  It  is  a  member  of 
the  Anis  family,  of  fine  size  and  excellent  quality.  Season,  late 
fall,  and  early  winter  North. 

POSAJRTS  NALIVIA.  Of  the  Antonovka  family  and  less  subject 
to  blight  and  a  better  keeper.  Season  here,  December,  and  much 
later  on  its  north  limit  of  growth.  Fruit  much  like  the  Antonovka, 
but  it  averages  larger  in  size  and  is  better  in  quality. 

KURSK  REINETTE.  (20  M  )  Of  the  Longfield  family,  with  the 
same  habit  of  early  and  continuous  bearing.  Fruit  more  conical 
than  Longfield,  of  same  color,  flesh  fine  grained,  tender  and  sweet. 
This  promises  to  be  very  valuable  over  a  large  part  of  the  United 
States. 

SILKEN  LEAP.  (No.  327.)  This  is  one  of  the  hardiest  of  the 
Hibernal  family.  A  great  and  continuous  bearer  of  smooth,  hand- 
some apples,  especially  valuable  for  culinary  use.  Season,  late  fall, 
and  mid-winter  at  the  North. 

POINTED  PIPKA.  (No.  361.)  A  true  iron-clad  and  perfect  tree 
on  varied  soils.  Fruit  large,  conical,  coming  to  a  point  at  the  nar- 
row basin,  yellow,  covered  with  stripes  and  splashes  of  crimson, 
with  much  bloom.  Flesh  fine  grained,  sub-acid  and  very  good. 
Season  here,  late  fall,  and  late  winter  on  its  north  limit  of  growth. 

BERGAMOT.  (No.  424.)  This  is  of  the  Antonovka  family  and  is 
classed  as  a  winter  apple  by  J.  B.  Mitchell,  of  Cresco,  and  other 
northern  growers.  The  fruit  is  later  with  us  than  Antonovka  or 
Posarts  Nalivia,  but  does  not  keep  later  than  December  with  ordi- 
nary care.  A  remarkable  bearer  and  perfect  tree  in  every  way. 
Fruit  large,  even  in  size,  bright  yellow  and  good  in  quality  for  any 
use. 

WINTER   APPLES. 

APORT  VORONESH.  We  introduced  the  Aport  of  Central  Rus- 
sia from  several  points.  It  has  been  sent  out  as  Aport,  23  M., 
4  Vor.,  and  12  Orel.  We  have  kept  these  importations  separate, 
but  they  all  appear  to  be  identical.  Fruit  large,  smooth,  yellow, 
with  much  red  in  broken  stripes  and  splashes.  Flesh  yellowish 
white,  slightly  coarse,  sub-acid,  aromatic,  quality  very  good  for  any 
use.  Mid-winter  here,  and  will  keep  through  winter  at  the  North. 

SKLANKA  BOGDANOFF.  This  is  an  iron-clad  tree  on  dry  soils, 
and  an  early  and  continuous  bearer.  Fruit  medium  in  size,  yellow, 
conical,  quality  better  than  Baldwin.  Season  mid-winter,  and 
very  late  on  its  north  limit  of  growth. 

VOLGA  CROSS.  A  perfect  tree  on  varied  soils.  Fruit  of  size  of 
Rhode  Island  Greening  and  a  much  better  keeper.  Quality  better 
than  Baldwin. 

CROSS.  (15  M.  and  No.  413.)  This  is  the  true  Cross  apple  of 
Central  Russia.  In  close  sheltered  positions  on  black  soils,  it  is 
subject  to  blight,  but  like  the  Yellow  Transparent,  it  blights  only 
on  points  of  growth.  On  dry  soils  and  in  airy  positions  it  will 


APPENDIX.  129 

prove  very  valuable,  as  it  is  a  heavy  and  continuous  bearer.  Fruit 
medium  to  large,  oblate,  ribbed,  yellow,  with  red  and  crimson 
stripes.  Flesh  firm,  sub-acid,  very  good.  Season  here,  mid- winter, 
and  it  will  keep  as  grown  in  North  Iowa  until  spring. 

MAHMALADE.  (88  Vor.)  A  perfect  tree  on  varied  soils.  Fruit 
large,  yellow,  blushed  on  sunny  side.  It  is  especially  valuable  for 
jellies,  marmalades  and  other  culinary  uses  requiring  much  grape 
sugar.  Season  here,  mid-winter. 

OSTRAKOFF.  (4  M.)  This  is  hardier  than  Duchess  and  less 
subject  to  blight.  An  early,  heavy  and  continuous  bearer,  and 
needs  manuring  to  keep  up  size  of  fruit  after  it  has  borne  heavy 
crops.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  even  in  size,  yellow.  Flesh  firm, 
sub-acid  and  fine  in  quality.  Mid-winter  here,  and  will  keep  until 
May  on  its  north  limit  of  growth. 

LEDENETS.  (30  M.)  An  iron-clad  tree,  succeeding  best  on  dry 
soils  without  shelter  at  the  north  and  west.  A  heavy  and  continu- 
ous bearer.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblate,  yellow,  with  blush  on 
sunny  side.  Flesh  fine  grained,  sub-acid,  very  good.  Season,  mid- 
winter here,  and  very  late  on  its  north  limit  of  growth. 

LEAD.  (3  M.)  This  also  does  best  on  dry  soils  without  shelter. 
Fruit  large,  oblaie,  conical,  yellow,  with  red  on  sunny  side,  acid 
and  most  valuable  for  cooking,  but  when  ripe  it  is  better  for  des- 
sert use  than  Willow  or  Ben  Davis.  Mid-winter  here,  and  much 
later  north. 

ROYAL  TABLE.  (5  M.)  Also  needs  dry  soil  and  open  exposure. 
An  early  and  continuous  bearer.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  conical, 
ribbed,  yellow,  with  red  on  sunny  side.  Flesh  white,  fine  grained, 
sub-acid,  nearly  best  in  quality.  Mid-winter  here,  and  late  winter 
at  the  North. 

REGBL.  (No.  169.)  This  was  received  by  the  College  from  Dr. 
Regel,  of  St.  Petersburg,  under  the  name  of  Green  Sweet.  But  a 
mistake  was  evidently  made  as  this  is  not  sweet,  has  a  fine  color 
and  is  a  late  keeping  winter  apple.  It  much  resembles  Repka 
Malenka  in  shape  and  color,  but  it  is  larger  in  size  and  of  better 
quality.  In  season  and  flavor  it  is  much  like  Rawle's  Janet. 

ROMNA.  (No.  599  and  11  M.)  This  succeeds  best  on  dry  soil 
where  its  roots  run  very  deep.  Fruit  medium  in  size,  conical, 
smooth,  handsomely  colored.  Flesh  white,  firm,  quite  acid  and 
best  for  cooking,  but  when  matured  it  is  much  better  for  dessert 
use  than  Willow  or  Missouri  Pippin  or  other  coarse  sorts  found  in 
our  markets.  Season,  mid-winter  here,  and  late  winter  north  of 
43d  parallel. 

SWINSOVKA.  (No.  277.)  The  Department  No.  277  is  Isbeled 
Vargul,  but  is  not  true  to  name.  The  Swinsovka  is  of  the  Lead 
apple  family,  but  is  not  identical  with  3  M.  Fruit  medium  to  large, 
green,  with  yellow  on  sunny  side.  Flesh  fine  grained,  firm,  sub- 
acid,  juicy  and  excellent  for  dessert  use.  Season,  mid- winter  at 
Ames,  and  late  winter  north. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

APPENDIX 126,  129 

APPLES   72,  94 

Crab  apples 94 

Cultivation 78 

Depth  to  plant 77 

Diseases 85 

Blight 85 

Scab 85 

Distance  apart  to  plant 78 

Forming  the  tree 78 

injured  trees 80 

Insects 86,  91 

Climbing  cut- worm 89 

Codliog  moth 89 

Curculio 90 

Flat  headed  apple  tree 

borer 86 

Fall  web  worm 90 

Leaflice 91 

New  York  weevil 87 

Tent  caterpillar 87 

Land  best  adapted  to  apples  74 
Location  of  apple  orchard..  73 
Location  especially  adapted 

to  orcharding 73 

Manuring '. 81 

Marketing 84 

Mulching ...    81 

Picking 84 

Planting 76 

Protecting  trunks  by  boxing    83 

Pruning 79 

Root-grafted  trees 76 

Russian  apples 92 

Seedlings 74 

Some  important  things   to 

remember 85 

Sunscald 81 

Supplementary  list  of  apples    93 

Time  to  plant    76 

Top-working 84 

Tr-ea 74 

Varieties 91 

Late  summer    and  early 

autumn 92 

Summer 92 

Wind-breaks 74 

Worst  location  for  an  or- 
chard      73 

BLACKBERRIES 25,  26 

Dewberries 26 

Species 25 

Varieties 26 

BORDEAUX  MIXTURE 12 

BUDDING 108, 1 15 

Bud-stick 108 

June-budding 113 

Necessary  implements 110 

Otherformsof 114 

Process  of 110 

Time  for 109 

BUFFALOBERRY 68,  69 

Description 68 

Propagation 69 


CHERRY 104, 

Cultivation 106 

Diseases 106 

Insects 106 

Location 104 

Planting 105 

Propagation 104 

Cuttings 105 

Suckers 105 

Pruning 106 

soil 104 

Varieties 107 

CRANBERRY 58,  62 

About  flowing 60 

Best  location  for  beds 59 

Drainage  and  flowage 60 

Importance  of  water 60 

Picking 62 

Plants  and  planting 61 

Preparation  of  land 59 

Soil  adapted  to  it 59 

Supplying  sand 59 

CURRANTS 27,  35 

Diseases 34 

Insects 31 

Currant  worm 31 

Imported  currant  borer ...    33 

Lice 33 

Marketing 31 

Mulching 29 

Planting 29 

Propagation 28 

By  cuttings 28 

Bylayers 28 

By  seed 28 

Pruning 29 

Soil 29 

Species 27 

Tree  currants 30 

Varieties 34 

Winter  protection 31 

DEWBERRIES 26 

DISEASES  OF  THE— 

Apple 85,86 

Currants 34 

Gooseberry 54 

Grape 53,  55 

Raspberry .24,  23 

Strawberry 11,12 

GOOSEBERRY 3S.  37 

Mildew £6 

Planting 36 

Propagation 36 

Pruning 36 

Species 35 

Varieties 37 

GRAFTING  BY  APPROACH,  OR 
INARCHING 125 

GRAFTING 116,  125 

Below  ground 121 

Cleft-grafting 117 

Night  cap 122 

Root-grafting 119 

Scion ....  116 


183 


INDEX. 


GRAFTING —  Continued. 

Side-grafting 

Stock 

Whip-grafting 

GRAFTING  WAX 

GRAPE 


Page. 
...  121 
...  116 
.  .  118 
..  117 
,  .38,  57 

Bagging  fruit 52 

Best  vines.. 43 

Cultivation. 44 

Diseases 53 

Downy  mildew 54 

Black  rot 54 

Distance  between  plants 43 

Fungicides,  use  of 55 

Ammoniacal  carbonate  of 

copper 55 

Girdling... 52 

Insects... 56 

Eight  spotted  forester 56 

Grape-vine  flea  beetle 56 

Keepingfruit 52 

Layering 41 

Spring  layers 41 

Summer  layers 41 

Location  of  vineyard 42 

Manures 51 

Planting 43 

Preventives  of  disease 54 

Propagation 39 

Cuttings 39 

Seed 39 

Pruning  and  training 44 

Pruning,  easy  system 49 

Pruning  neglected  vines....    50 

Pruning,  time  of 51 

Removing  foliage 49 

Soil 43 

Species 38 

Thinning  the  fruit 51 

Training  vines  against  build- 
ings or  walls 50 

Trellis 45 

Varieties 56 

Varieties,  list  recommended    57 
INSECTICIDES— 

Kerosene  emulsion 91 

Parisgreen 90 

Tobacco  water 91 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO— 

Apple.... 86,91 

Currant 31,34 

Grape.. 56 

Raspberry     23,24 

Strawberry ....12,13 

JUNEBERRY,  DWARF 63,  65 

Cultivation 64 

Propagation 64 

Varieties 65 

KEROSENE  EMULSION 91 

MULBERRY,  RUSSIAN 70,  71 

Hardiness 70 

Itsfruit.. 71 

Propagation 71 

Varieties 71 

PLUM,  THE 95,  103 

Cultivation 97 

Diseases 100,101 

Black  rot,  or  Wart  of  the 

r»lum 100 

Diseases,  other 101 


Page. 

Plum  Pockets 100 

Insects 101,  103 

Aphis,  or  Leaf  Lice 103 

Plum  Curcmio 101 

Plum  Gouger 102 

Location 97 

Marketing 98 

Mixing  varieties 98 

Planting. 97 

Profits  of  cultivation 97 

Propagation 96 

Pruning... 97 

Renewing  old  trees 97 

Species 95 

Suckers,  thrifty 96 

Varieties 99 

RASPBERRIES 15,  25 

Convenient  box  holder 22 

Cultivation 18 

Diseases 22 

Anthracnose 23 

Leaf  curl 22 

Red  orange  rust 22 

Insects 23 

Flat-headed  borer 23 

Snowy  tree  cricket 23 

Location 17 

Manure — 18 

Mulching 20 

Planting 18 

Preparation  of  land 18 

Propagation 16 

Layers 17 

Root  cuttings 16 

Seed 16 

Pruning  and  thinning 19 

Selection  of  plants 18 

Soil 17 

Species 15 

Support 20 

Time  of  planting 18 

Varieties 24 

Winter  protection 21 

STRAWBERRIES 5, 14 

Avoiding  frosts / 9 

Bordeaux  mixture 12 

Diseases 11 

Dry  berries— "nubbins" 11 

How  to  continue  in  bearing.  9 

Insects 12 

Leaf  roller 12 

White  grub 12 

Location 6 

Manures 6 

Marketing 11 

Methods  of  planting 7 

Hill  system 7 

Matted  row  system 8 

Picking 11 

Preparation  of  land 6 

Propagation 5 

Sexuality  of  blossoms 10 

Shading  the  bed 13 

Soil.. 6 

Species 5 

Time  of  planting 7 

Trimming  and  setting  plants  8 

Varieties 14 

^yinte^  protection 9 


YB  47602 


380436 


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